[5][6] This imaginary structures global politics as both a field of study and a set of practices, and though it only rose to prominence in the late twentieth century, has longer historical roots stretching back at least to the creation of medieval mappa mundi[7] and to first contact between Afro-Eurasia and the Americas through colonialism and the Age of Sail.
[8] Beginning in the late nineteenth century, several groups extended the definition of the political community beyond nation-states to include much, if not all, of humanity.
These internationalists include Marxists, human rights advocates, environmentalists, peace activists, feminists, and minority groups.
[9] The way in which modern world politics is implemented is structured by a set of interpretations dating back to the rise of the European powers.
[10] This view has been subject to debate: On the other hand, other commentators have been arguing that states have remained essential to global politics.
By contrast, the 'challenger' nations have: closed systems; absolute rulers; domestic instability; and continental geographic locations.
[26] Modelski speculates that US deconcentration might be replaced by a power based in the 'Pacific rim' or by an explicit coalition of nations, as 'co-operation is urgently required in respect of nuclear weapons'.
His research, influenced by Immanuel Wallerstein, was 'measured in decades... a major achievement' says Peter J. Taylor[28] Goldstein in 1988[29] posited a 'hegemony cycle' of 150 years' duration, the four hegemonic powers since 1494 being; Hapsburg Spain, 1494-1648; ended by the Thirty Years War, in which Spain itself was the 'challenger'; the Treaty of Westphalia and the beginnings of the nation-state.
the Netherlands, 1648-1815; ended by the challenge from France of the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, the Treaty of Vienna and introduction of the Congress System Great Britain, 1815-1945; ended by Germany's challenge in two World Wars, and the postwar settlement, including the World Bank, IMF, GATT, the United Nations and NATO the United States, since 1945.
[30] Goldstein suggests that US hegemony may 'at an indeterminate time' be challenged and ended by China (the 'best fit'), by western Europe, Japan, or (writing in 1988) the USSR.