[1][2][3] While an agreement was briefly agreed upon, the Japanese and the U.S. government broke the deal, declared a state of emergency in Hyogo, and arrested thousands of Koreans living throughout the city.

[6] Those who did not comply with the policy were forbidden from attending school, collecting wartime rations or working for the government.

[8] In 1947, the School Education Law was enacted in Japan under the instruction of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Forces Douglas MacArthur.

[10] Thirteen days later, on April 23, Japanese police and military used force to close down schools by physically removing students and nailing the doors shut.

[11] The police and military then blocked the entrance to Nada and Higashi schools to prevent students from entering.

[11] A Korean teenager named Kim T'ae-il, the only recorded casualty from the Hanshin Education Incident, was killed when Japanese police were shooting among the crowd of protestors.

[1] About 100 Korean protestors broke into the reception of the Governor's office, where they destroyed furniture and cut off the phone lines, which limited communication with the police and military.

[8] During the Hanshin protests in Osaka-Kobe, the Zainichi civil rights movement relied on support from the Japan Communist Party, but with the end of the Korean War, ethnic Korean activists moved away from an anti-Japanese stance and attempted to depoliticize their movement and sever ties with the Communist Party in Japan.

[12] The Hanshin Education Incident is part of a larger struggle for civil rights, autonomy and acceptance of Koreans living in Japan.

As a result, a large number of Koreans began to work in alcohol production and scrap recycling, or engage in criminal activity.

[8] This Association had close ties to the newly established Communist government of North Korea which financially and ideologically supported the preservation of Korean ethnic schools.

When Japan signed the United Nations Refugee Convention, Chongryon Koreans received permanent residency status too and were granted the right to visit their families in North Korea.

[14] The rise of Japanese neo-nationalism caused a renewed deterioration of relations with the Koreans living in Japan.

The Japanese government started to monitor the Chongryon affiliated schools more closely, including their educational curriculum and their financial ties, as they had been sending monetary aid to North Korea.

[1] After Shinzo Abe was elected Prime Minister in 2012, his government decided that Chongryon schools’ freedom of operation had to be curtailed by cancelling subsidies that improved affordability for the pro-Chongryon ethnic Koreans.

[15] In 2017, the District Court of Osaka ruled that the attempted cuts to school subsidies by the Abe government should be retracted.

[16] One year later, the Japanese High Court upheld the government's decision to restrict educational subsidies for students attending Chongryon schools.