Hauberk

[3] Mail armor, likely invented by the Celts, became widely adopted for its flexibility and spread throughout Europe and Asia, becoming a staple in Roman legions and medieval warfare.

By the 11th century, the hauberk evolved into a knee-length, sleeved mail shirt, as depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry and it remained in use in Europe until the Renaissance despite the rise of plate armor.

[4] The term byrnie comes from the Old English word byrne, which is connected to the Old Norse brynja and the Gothic brunjō, all referring to a coat of mail.

Archaeological evidence supports this, with notable finds like the Ciumești Celtic grave, containing a mail hauberk made of butted rings.

[10] The will of Eberhard of Friuli, an important figure of the Carolingian Empire, includes the term "helmum cum hasbergha", likely referring to a helmet with a neck protector.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, the hauberk merged with the mail shirt, forming a single protective garment that reached the knees, offering better defense against weapons.

[13] The Bayeux Tapestry depicts Norman soldiers, both cavalry and infantry, wearing a knee-length version of the hauberk, with three-quarter length sleeves and a split from hem to crotch to allow for easier movement, especially while riding, which evolved from the Carolingian byrnie.

[1] In the 11th century, men-at-arms likely did not wear full mail trousers, but the hauberk appears to have incorporated cloth or leather inserts that offered comparable protection.

Additionally, it included a mail hood that covered the head, neck, and throat, leaving an opening for the face similar to a modern balaclava.

Beneath this hood, padding made from cloth or leather was used for extra comfort and protection, while a pointed iron helmet with a nose-guarding bar, called a nasal, was worn over it.

[15] A hauberk stored in the Prague Cathedral and dating from the 12th century is one of the earliest surviving examples from Central Europe, and was supposedly owned by Saint Wenceslaus.

Similarly, when Beowulf sinks into Grendel's lair, the poet highlights his coat of mail, emphasizing the importance of armor in their heroic confrontations.

[19] This French epic poem the Song of Roland describes the Battle of Roncevaux Pass and includes detailed descriptions of knights' armaments.

[22] In William Morris' The House of the Wolfings, Thiodolf, a formidable warrior with divine lineage, rises to defend his people against a Roman invasion.