Hegemonic masculinity
[1][2][3] Hegemonic masculinity is defined as a practice that legitimizes men's dominant position in society and justifies the subordination of the common male population and women, and other marginalized ways of being a man.
[1][4] Conceptually, hegemonic masculinity proposes to explain how and why men maintain dominant social roles over women, and other gender identities, which are perceived as "feminine" in a given society.
Today’s hegemonic masculinity in the United States of America and Europe includes a high degree of ruthless competition, an inability to express emotions other than anger, an unwillingness to admit weakness or dependency, devaluation of women and all feminine attributes in men, homophobia, and so forth.
[6] "Due to social inequalities in Australian high schools, Sociologist Connell introduced the Hegemonic masculinity idea, that takes a look at male roles and their characteristics.
[10] This literature preceded the Women's Liberation Movement and feminist theories of patriarchy which also played a strong role in shaping the concept of hegemonic masculinity.
[3] Sigmund Freud produced the first analytic biographies of men and showed how adult personality was a system under tension and the psychoanalyst Robert J. Stoller[15] popularized the concept of gender identity and mapped its variation in boys' development.
[3] In Western society, the dominant form of masculinity or the cultural ideal of manhood was primarily reflective of white, heterosexual, largely middle-class males.
These characteristics include: violence and aggression, stoicism (emotional restraint), courage, toughness, physical strength, athleticism, risk-taking, adventure and thrill-seeking, competitiveness, and achievement and success.
However, complicity is not so easily defined as pure subordination since marriage, fatherhood, and community life often involve extensive compromises with women rather than simple domination over them.
[3] It has been suggested that historically suppressed groups like inner city African-American males exhibit the more violent standards of hegemonic masculinity in response to their own subordination and lack of control.
Through examples from his fieldwork among youth in Maputo, Mozambique he shows that this change is related to social polarization, new class identities and the undermining of breadwinner roles and ideologies in a neoliberal economy.
In response to the adverse connotations surrounding the concept, Richard Collier[23] remarks that hegemonic masculinity is solely associated with negative characteristics that depict men as unemotional (see affect display), aggressive, independent, and non-nurturing without recognizing positive behaviours such as bringing home a wage or being a father.
In one of the most widely cited works analysing the concept, R. W. Connell and James Messerschmidt sought to reformulate their theory of hegemonic masculinity in light of certain criticisms.
Studies indicates that forms of masculinity outside the mainstream are strong, even under conditions of marginalization due to race, economic status, physical ability, or sexual orientation.
Women are central in many of the processes constructing masculinities, as mothers, schoolmates, girlfriends, sexual partners, wives, and workers in the gender division of labour.
[27] The circuits of social embodiment may be very direct and simple or may be long and complex, passing through institutions, economic relations, cultural symbols, and so forth without ceasing to involve material bodies.
[33] Although gender socialization is well underway before children reach preschool, stereotypical differences between boys and girls are typically reinforced, rather than diminished, by their early educational childhood experiences.
[30] Another factor that contributes to gendered behaviour and roles is the greater visibility, importance, and presence of males than females in literature, and in the language that teachers use for communication and instruction.
[citation needed] However, the violent and competitive nature of sports like football can only be an exclusively masculine domain if girls and women are excluded from participating altogether.
[37] This brings confusion to the natural order of building their individualism, and stifles their creativity and freeplay, critical to developing lifelong skills in problem solving and decision making.
[39] Boys in their adolescence are pressured to act masculine in order to fit the hegemonic ideals, yet the possibility of suffering long-term psychological damage as a result looms overhead.
In Jackson Katz's film Tough Guise: Violence, Media & the Crisis in Masculinity, he asserts: We can't show any emotion except anger.
[50] Players, coaches, and trainers subscribe to the hegemonic model, thus creating a culture of dismissiveness, often resulting in concussions, which can lead to brain diseases like CTE.
[52][53] Hegemonic masculine ideals, especially stoicism, emotionlessness, and invulnerability, alongside shame and fear of judgement, can help explain an aversion to seeking mental health care.
On a global scale, the impact of hegemonic masculinity has been considered in determining unequal social and political relations which are deleterious to the health of both men and women.
A Harvard Business School study found an intervention to improve the culture at Shell Oil during the construction of the Ursa tension leg platform contributed to increased productivity and an 84% lower accident rate.
[citation needed] In the article, the psychologist James Asbrand, who specializes in post-traumatic stress disorder, explains: "The rape of a male soldier has a particular symbolism.
"[66] Connell argues that an important feature of hegemonic masculinity is the use of "toxic" practices such as physical violence, which may serve to reinforce men's dominance over women in Western societies.
These traits are contrasted with more positive aspects of hegemonic masculinity such as "pride in [one's] ability to win at sports, to maintain solidarity with a friend, to succeed at work, or to provide for [one's] family".
[68][69] Scholars note that "although 'softer' and more 'sensitive' styles of masculinity are developing among some privileged groups of men, this does not necessarily contribute to the emancipation of women; in fact, quite the contrary may be true.
