Interlocus sexual conflict

Rice's genetic model of X-linkage influencing sexual dimorphism demonstrated that alleles for reproductive traits will persist if they increase the fitness of one sex, regardless of the associated cost for their mate.

The chase-away sexual selection model, proposed by Holland and Rice, enabled the prediction that mating discrimination by females will drive the evolution of male display features toward extreme phenotypes.

Female water striders achieve control over copulatory acts by using their spines as defense against aggressive males.

[12] Of interest to interlocus sexual conflict, the Red Queen hypothesis allows for the evolution of traits that enhance reproductive fitness.

[15] Through Parker's genetic threshold model, it was discovered that female yellow dung flies can be injured in battles between male suitors.

[2] Male yellow dung flies use pheromones, seminal fluid proteins (SPFs), and aggressive behaviour attributable to their size to manipulate females during courtship.

As yellow dung flies are a polyandrous species, females obtain sperm from multiple males which is stored for fertilization.

In response, females have evolved larger spermathecae, spermicides, and an enhanced ability to select sperm based on the fitness of male suitors.

[17] Initially, it was suggested that the sexy son hypothesis was enough to compensate for the direct impact of antagonistic coevolution on female fitness.

[17] Drosophila melanogaster are a promiscuous species in which mate choice is a recurring event, fostering the development of interlocus sexual conflict.

[18] The ejaculate of male fruit flies contains seminal fluid proteins (SFPs) that play a significant role in determining female fitness.

[23] In response to the negative effects of SPFs, female fruit flies have evolved resistance tactics to hyperactive males and refractoriness, resulting in interlocus sexual conflict.