Alexander Jannaeus (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος Ἰανναῖος Aléxandros Iannaîos;[1] Hebrew: יַנַּאי‎ Yannaʾy;[2] born Jonathan יהונתן) was the second king of the Hasmonean dynasty, who ruled over an expanding kingdom of Judaea from 103 to 76 BCE.

From his conquests to expand the kingdom to a bloody civil war, Alexander's reign has been described as cruel and oppressive with never-ending conflict.

[4] The kingdom reached its greatest territorial extent under Alexander Jannaeus, incorporating most of Palestine's Mediterranean coastline and regions surrounding the Jordan River.

Due to his territorial expansion and adverse interactions with his subjects, he was continuously embroiled with foreign wars and domestic turmoil.

According to the Talmud, Alexander was a questionable desecrated priest, rumour had it that his mother was captured in Modi'in and violated, and, in the opinion of the Pharisees, was not allowed to serve in the temple.

While Alexander went ahead to besiege the city, Zoilus of Dora took the opportunity to see if he could relieve Ptolemais in hopes of establishing his rule over coastal territories.

[7] The situation at Ptolemais was seized as an opportunity by Ptolemy to possibly gain a stronghold and control the Judean coast in order to invade Egypt by sea.

[7] Alexander too didn't want to be involved in a war between Cleopatra and Ptolemy, so he abandoned his campaign against Ptolemais and returned to Jerusalem.

After offering Ptolemy four hundred talents and a peace treaty in return for Zoilus's death, Alexander met him with treachery by negotiating an alliance with Cleopatra.

Once he had formed an alliance with Ptolemy, Alexander continued his conquests by capturing the coastal cities of Dora and Straton's Tower.

Ptolemy put Ptolemais under siege, but left his generals to attack the city, while he continued to pursue Alexander.

Estimated to have fifty to eighty thousand soldiers, Alexander's army consisted of both Jews and pagans.

He then continued to conquer much of the Hasmonean kingdom, occupying the entirety of northern Judea, the coast, and territories east of the Jordan River.

While doing so, he pillaged villages and ordered his soldiers to cannibalise women and children to create psychological fear towards his enemies.

[14] Alexander initially returned his focus back to the Transjordan region where, avenging his previous defeat, he destroyed Amathus.

[15] Determined to proceed with future campaigns despite his initial defeat at Amathus, Alexander set his focus on Gaza.

When morning exposed the delusive tactic, Alexander continued his assault but lost a thousand additional soldiers.

Due to Jannaeus's victory at Gaza, the Nabataean kingdom no longer had direct access to the Mediterranean Sea.

Alexander soon captured Gadara, which together with the loss of Gaza caused the Nabataeans to lose their main trade routes leading to Rome and Damascus.

[20] Jannaeus had brought the surviving rebels back to Jerusalem where he had eight hundred Jews, primarily Pharisees, crucified.

Before their deaths, Alexander had the rebels' wives and children executed before their eyes as Jannaeus ate with his concubines.

Alexander later returned the land he had seized in Moab and Galaaditis from the Nabataeans in order to have them end their support for the Jewish rebels.

[22] For the last three years of his life, Alexander Jannaeus suffered from the combined effects of alcoholism and quartan ague (malaria).

According to Josephus, Jannaeus fell fatally ill on the battlefield at Ragaba, with his wife Salome Alexandra present.

This request is interpreted as Jannaeus seeking atonement for previously violating this commandment by abusing the bodies of crucified Pharisees.

[24] Kenneth Atkinson writes that Josephus's style and wording suggest Jannaeus died in Jerusalem and never reached Ragaba.

[24] Alexander's reign ended with a significant political decision, naming his wife as successor and granting her the authority to appoint the next high priest.