Joseph was the second but first surviving son of Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen (of Saxe-Altenburg from 1826) and Duchess Charlotte Georgine of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

Joseph succeeded his father as Duke of Saxe-Altenburg after his death in 1834.

In 1814, Joseph and his brother George fought with the allies against France in the Napoleonic Wars.

Later, he held the rank of General Major in Saxon services.

Joseph implemented several buildings in Altenburg, but his government was considered conservative and resistant to reform; for this, he was forced to abdicate during the civil revolution of 1848.