Kintpuash (c. 1837 – October 3, 1873), also known as Kientpoos, Keintpoos, or by his English name Captain Jack, was a prominent Modoc leader from present-day northern California and southern Oregon.

Using the rugged terrain of the Lava Beds in California, his small band of warriors held off vastly superior US Army forces for several months.

They lived in semi-nomadic bands, migrating seasonally between Mount Shasta and the areas northward beyond Lost River, sustaining themselves through hunting and gathering.

Modoc men hunted deer, antelope, rabbits, and ducks, while women gathered plants such as waterlily seeds and epos root, a dietary staple.

According to historian Gary Okihiro, citing Alfred B. Meacham's writings, in 1852, when Kintpuash was about fourteen, the bodies of eighteen white settlers were discovered in Modoc territory.

Following the 1869 ratification of the Council Grove Treaty, the Modocs were promised new lands on the Klamath Reservation, and the U.S. government offered food and blankets as incentives for their return.

[8] During this period, the Ghost Dance movement, a spiritual and cultural revival led by Paiute prophet Wovoka, spread among tribes in California, Nevada, and Oregon.

Viewing the departure as defiance, Federal Indian Commissioner Francis A. Walker ordered agents to return the Modocs to Klamath, authorizing the use of force if necessary.

With no viable alternative, Kintpuash reluctantly agreed to return to Klamath but criticized Jackson’s methods, stating that the soldiers’ early morning approach had frightened his people.

Amid the chaos, Kintpuash and his people fled the camp and sought refuge in the nearby Lava Beds, a natural stronghold near Tule Lake.

On February 28, 1873, Winema, a Modoc relative married to settler Frank Riddle, visited Kintpuash with a message from President Ulysses S. Grant announcing a peace commission to negotiate under a truce.

On March 6, 1873, with the help of his sister Mary, Kintpuash wrote to the peace commissioners, explaining his refusal to surrender his men and questioning why settlers who had killed Modocs were not held accountable.

On April 2, Kintpuash met the commissioners to request the Army's withdrawal and clarify the fate of the wanted Modocs, but Canby rejected both appeals.

[17] Kintpuash later held a private meeting with his friends Meacham and John Fairchild, excluding Canby and Thomas due to mistrust of the military and clergy.

He explained his decision to flee during the events at Lost River and renewed his plea for local land or permission to remain in the Lava Beds.

Hooker Jim, Schonchin John, and Curly Headed Doctor opposed, accusing Canby of deceit and threatening to kill anyone who attempted to leave.

On April 7, 1873, tensions within the Modoc leadership peaked as Hooker Jim and his allies accused Kintpuash of planning to surrender the wanted men.

According to Jeff C. Riddle, son of Winema and Frank, historian Dee Brown noted that Kintpuash demanded the Modocs remain in their homelands and called for U.S. troops to withdraw.

Three days later, the U.S. Army launched a massive assault on the area but was unable to locate the dispersed Modocs, who had scattered to avoid capture.

Kintpuash's resistance and eventual surrender remain a symbol of the Modoc struggle for their homeland and survival in the face of overwhelming odds.

According to historian Benjamin Madley, citing correspondence between military leaders, the Army decided to halt plans for the extermination of the Modocs after Kintpuash was captured.

In 1873, Native Americans in California gained the right to serve as witnesses in trials, marking a shift in how their testimony could influence legal outcomes.

Additionally, Native advocates lobbied President Grant for clemency, warning that annihilating the Modocs could provoke both domestic and international condemnation.

U.S. Attorney General George Henry Williams determined that the captured Modocs would be tried by a military tribunal, under the reasoning that they were prisoners of war from a sovereign nation engaged in conflict with the US.

According to historian Doug Foster, who also relied on Meacham's account as well as newspapers, this composition was biased, as these men had motivations to avenge their fallen commander.

Under court-martial regulations, the judge advocate was required to ensure the trial's fairness in the absence of legal representation and to prevent the defendants from unintentionally undermining their cases.

Foster, citing Meacham, argued that the Modoc defendants were not proficient in English, and their translator, Frank Riddle, broke his neutrality by testifying against them.

[33] This trial and its aftermath remain a striking example of the injustices faced by Native Americans in the 19th century, highlighting systemic inequities in both judicial and social spheres.

While the San Francisco Chronicle condemned the act as barbaric, the Army and Navy Journal justified it, claiming it was conducted for craniological research.

[34] Following the executions, the remaining members of Kintpuash's band—comprising thirty-nine men, fifty-four women, and sixty children—were forcibly relocated to Oklahoma Territory.