[2] Long simmering sectional antagonisms and differences were brought to a head by the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States in November 1860 and led to the Civil War.
These centered on the possible abolition of slavery but included competing understandings of federalism, party politics, expansionism, sectionalism, tariffs, economics, values, and social structures A longer than usual introduction is desirable for these lists because a description of the leadership of the small pre-Civil War U.S. Army and what became of those leaders not only shows that many inexperienced men had to become Civil War generals, but that more men with some military training and experience were available than may be commonly believed.
[5] The lists in these articles contain the names and highest grades (or ranks) of the substantive or full or actual general officers of both armies and a few other notable high military commanders.
Although they are unsigned, they are often referred to as his work because it was known he had been engaged in the task and he included the lists in books he wrote at about the same time.
These memos showed 425 actual, substantive generals of various grades or levels were duly appointed by the President of the Confederate States Jefferson Davis and confirmed by the Confederate Senate for the Confederate Army and 583 actual, substantive generals of various grades or levels were appointed by President of the United States Abraham Lincoln and confirmed by the United States Senate for the Union Army during the course of the American Civil War.
Most historians, such as the Eichers, believe these numbers should be reduced by about 25 names each to account for canceled appointments and unconfirmed nominations.
[10] And at the end of the war, several appointments to the rank were not brought before the Confederate States Senate for confirmation.
These commands were exercised mostly for longer periods of time than the periods of time which those officers who exercised such commands on a temporary or emergency basis usually acted and who usually were not appointed or nominated as general officers by the respective presidents at all.
[12] This conclusion is still inconsistent with the criteria that these authors state they are using, but at least they have given a plausible rationale for adopting Wright's full list.
In doing so, they have often identified officers who were not full generals but who are notable and may deserve recognition for their actions in high commands.
[14] Historians have recognized a number of Confederate officers who exercised high command but were never formally appointed as generals.
[17] By the time of the Civil War, these brevet appointments were honorary titles, much like medals or commendations, and had little effect on command positions or status, especially since most of the awards were not confirmed until months or even years after the war was over, regardless of the date from which the awarded brevet grade was to rank.
Even if significant numbers of brevet grade appointments had been awarded earlier in the war, except in a few special instances (sitting on court martial panels, special assignments, command of different units operating together with commanding officers of equal rank), they had not extra responsibilities, privileges or pay and would have meant little more than the award of a medal.
[19] Ten officers who were assigned to duty by General Edmund Kirby Smith in the Trans-Mississippi Department after communications were cut off or severely slowed down by Union forces securing control of the Mississippi River are among the "might have beens."
The Confederate Regular Army did not proceed beyond the planning stage and the appointment of six brigadier generals and a few lower grade officers.
Additional reference and distinction between a regular Confederate Army and the PACS is superfluous except perhaps as a minor historical footnote.
Captain John F. Lee of the Ordnance Department was accordingly appointed, and held the office until it was superseded by the legislation of 1862.
[50] With few active officers to fill many commands, the two Civil War armies had to look to other persons for military leadership.
[54] Another alumnus of The Citadel, Colonel Charles C. Tew, was killed on the eve of his promotion to brigadier general.