Marine protected area
The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, is situated in the central Pacific Ocean, around Hawaii, occupying an area of 1.5 million square kilometers.
[7] The area is rich in wild life, including the green turtle and the Hawaiian monkfish, alongside 7,000 other species, and 14 million seabirds.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines a protected area as:[12][13] A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.This definition is intended to make it more difficult to claim MPA status for regions where exploitation of marine resources occurs.
Other definitions by the IUCN include (2010):[14] Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment.United States Executive Order 13158 in May 2000 established MPAs, defining them as:[15] Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein.The Convention on Biological Diversity defined the broader term of marine and coastal protected area (MCPA):[16] Any defined area within or adjacent to the marine environment, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine and/or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its surroundings.An apparently unique extension of the meaning is used by NOAA to refer to protected areas on the Great Lakes of North America.
In 1976, a process was delivered to the excessive rights to every sovereign state to establish marine protected areas at over 200 nautical miles.
In the aftermath of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, an international target was established with the encompassment of ten percent of the world's marine protected areas.
[23] No take zones (NTZs), are areas designated in a number of the world's MPAs, where all forms of exploitation are prohibited and severely limits human activities.
The degree to which environmental regulations affect shipping varies according to whether MPAs are located in territorial waters, exclusive economic zones, or the high seas.
The World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 called for the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international laws and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012.
In 2017, the UN held the United Nations Ocean Conference aiming to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14.
This area encompasses 94,000 square kilometres (36,000 sq mi) and all fishing activity including transshipment, and dumping or discharge of waste is prohibited with the exception of scientific research endeavors.
[43] On 28 October 2016, the CCAMLR, composed of 24 member countries and the European Union at the time, agreed to establish the world's largest marine park encompassing 1.55 million km2 (600,000 sq mi) in the Ross Sea after several years of failed negotiations.
The prevalent practice of area-based targets was criticized in 2019 by a group of environmental scientists because politicians tended to protect parts of the oceans where little fishing happened to meet the goals.
This achieves United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14.5 for conservation of marine and coastal areas, and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 Aichi Target 11.
[69] Despite all the efforts, as China constructs MPA based on administrative hierarchy (national, provincial, municipal, and county), there exist problems of fragmentized division and inconsistent enforcement of MPAs.
The permanent commission on the exploitation and conservation on the marine resources of the South Pacific promotes the exchange of studies and information among participants.
[71] The region is currently running one comprehensive cross-national program, the Tropical Eastern Pacific Marine Corridor Network, signed in April 2004.
[73] In exchange for some of its national debt being written off, the Seychelles designates two new marine protected areas in the Indian Ocean, covering about 210,000 square kilometres (81,000 sq mi).
[76] Ten countries in the Western Indian Ocean have launched the "Great Blue Wall" initiative, which seeks to create a network of linked MPAs throughout the region.
Two assessments, conducted thirty years apart, of three Mediterranean MPAs, demonstrate that proper protection allows commercially valuable and slow-growing red coral (Corallium rubrum) to produce large colonies in shallow water of less than 50 metres (160 ft).
[79] A 2018 study published in Science found that trawling is more intense inside official EU marine sanctuaries and that endangered fish species such as sharks and rays are more common outside them.
[92][93] In March 2015, the UK announced the creation of a marine reserve around the Pitcairn Islands in the Southern Pacific Ocean to protect its special biodiversity.
[97] On 13 November 2020 it was announced that the 687,247 square kilometres (265,348 sq mi) of the waters surrounding the Tristan da Cunha and neighboring islands will become a Marine Protection Zone.
Mathematical models that seek to reflect the complexity of the natural setting may assist in planning harvesting strategies and sustaining fishing grounds.
[105] Other techniques such as on-site monitoring sensors, crowdsensing via local people, research and sampling endeavors, autonomous ships and underwater robots (UAV) could also be used and developed.
In 2021, 43 expert scientists published the first scientific framework version that – via integration, review, clarifications and standardization – enables coherent evaluation of levels of protection of marine protected areas and serve as a guide for improving, planning and monitoring these such as in efforts towards the 30%-protection-goal adopted as part of the Convention on Biological Diversity's "Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework" in December 2022,[107][108] the "Global Deal For Nature"[109] and the UN's Sustainable Development Goal 14.
This occurred in the Malindi Kisite and Watamu Marian National Parks in Kenya; the Leigh Marine Reserve in New Zealand; and Brackett's Landing Conservation Area in the US.
According to leaked diplomatic cables,[120] the UK proposed that the BIOT become a "marine reserve" with the aim of preventing the former inhabitants from returning to their lands and to protect the joint UK/US military base on Diego Garcia Island.
[129] Other critiques include: their cost (higher than that of passive management), conflicts with human development goals, inadequate scope to address factors such as climate change and invasive species.
[130] "A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated, and managed, through legal or effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem service and cultural value."
