Nonferrous archaeometallurgy of the Southern Levant
The metal findings from this period were separated into three groups; most of them belong to the following first two groups: Prestige/cult-elaborated and complex-shaped objects made of copper (Cu) alloyed (a deliberate choice of complex minerals that could be reduced to a mixture of metals with specific recognizable and desirable properties, totally different from unalloyed copper) with distinct amounts of antimony (Sb) or nickel (Ni) and arsenic (As).
They were cast using a “lost wax” technique [1] into single closed clay moulds and then polished into their final shining gray or gold-like colors depending on the amount of antimony or nickel and arsenic in the copper.
Several clay and stone cores and clay mould remains were petrographically analyzed and the results [1] point to a possible local production in the area of the Judean Desert, within the metals distribution zone in Israel, which is concentrated mainly in the southern part of the country: between Giv’at Oranit and Wadi Qana (east of modern Tel Aviv) in the north and the Be’er Sheva valley sites in the south.
The ore was collected and selected in the area of Feinan in Trans-Jordan and transported to northern Negev villages some 150 km to the north, to be smelted for the local production of these copper objects.
During the Chalcolithic (copper and stone) era at least two, if not three distinct industries of different metals were operating and their products were found in the Southern Levant.
The same metal technique was used for the novel production of long blade weapons (riveted daggers and knives, heavy tanged swords, and epsilon-shaped axes).
A single hoard of copper objects probably from the Early Bronze I was found with no related archaeological context in the fields of Kfar Monash.
These changes in the metal properties of weapons are also reflected in the composition of small objects, like toggle pins that were probably made mainly from re-melting of scrap.
[13] Lead (Pb) started to play a greater role as a major alloy for thick casts of copper-based objects, mainly of battle axes [14] during this period.
[17] On the other hand, some of the less controlled alloyed types, like spearheads and knives as well as more simple tools such as chisel points, were mainly cast into open, relatively roughly carved limestone moulds.
[20] In Canaan at that time, Cypriot, Egyptian, Syrian, and Mesopotamian types of bronze objects were found, besides the local Canaanite metal collection.
[26] Even after thousands of years the ash, charcoal, calcite, and burnt ground in the immediate vicinity of the metal work area retained significantly higher values of copper (circa 0.05 wt% Cu) than the surrounding archaeological layers.
Silver hoards containing small tongueshaped bar chunks or scrapped jewellery became more and more common in the archaeological context in Israel as well as all over the Mediterranean.
[27] A similar phenomenon was evident during the Persian Period on the coast of Israel, where copper and copper-based objects were found in relatively large quantities [28] and with parallels in other sites all around the Mediterranean Sea.
They underwent mechanical treatment after casting and an extensive final cold working in the area where the needle spring was fastened into the fibulae body.
