List of diseases of the honey bee
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, when used in beehives as directed, chemical treatments kill a large proportion of the mites while not substantially disrupting bee behavior or life span.
In 1991 Bailey and Ball stated "The final opinion of Rennie (1923), a co-discoverer of Acarapis woodi, who had much experience with bees said to have the Isle of Wight Disease, was that under the original and now quite properly discarded designation 'Isle of Wight Disease' were included several maladies having analogous superficial symptoms",[8] the authors came to the firm conclusion that the IoWD was not caused by acarine (Acarapis woodi) mites solely, but primarily by chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV), even though Acarapis woodi was always found to be present within the hive whenever CBPV symptoms were observed.
[citation needed] Diagnosis for tracheal mites generally involves the dissection and microscopic examination of a sample of bees from the hive.
[citation needed] Menthol, either allowed to vaporize from crystal form or mixed into the grease patties, is also often used to treat acarine mites.
[citation needed] Nosema disease is very common when bees get into winter clusters, as they spend an extensive time in their hives as they keep together for warmth and have little to no opportunities to eliminate waste.
[19] By December 1999, small hive beetles were reported in Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Wisconsin, and it was found in California by 2006.
[citation needed] When honey supers are stored for the winter in a mild climate, or in heated storage, the wax moth larvae can destroy portions of the comb, though they will not fully develop.
Wax moth larvae and eggs are killed by freezing, so storage in unheated sheds or barns in higher latitudes is the only control necessary.
They thrive and spread most rapidly with temperatures above 30 °C (90 °F), so some areas with only occasional days that are hot rarely have a problem with wax moths, unless the colony is already weak due to stress from other factors.
[citation needed] Wax moths can be controlled in stored comb by application of the aizawai variety of B. thuringiensis spores by spraying.
[21] Langstroth found that placing a spider, such as a daddy-long-legs, with stored combs controlled wax moth and eliminate the need for hash chemicals.
[citation needed] European foulbrood (EFB) is caused by the bacterium Melissococcus plutonius that infects the midgut of bee larvae.
Symptoms include dead and dying larvae which can appear curled upwards, brown or yellow, melted or deflated with tracheal tubes more apparent, or dried out and rubbery.
[citation needed] The "shook swarm" method[31] of bee husbandry can also effectively control the disease, with the advantage of avoiding the use of chemicals.
[34] Hedtke et al. provided statistical evidence that chalkbrood outbreaks occurred in summer when there was a N. ceranae infection earlier in the spring and there is an ongoing V. destructor infestation.
[34] Even though Hornitzky's literature review of articles on chalkbrood disease concluded that there was no definitive cure or control, there are a variety of prevention mechanisms.
[38] Improving genetic stock to be more hygienic, sterilization of old equipment,[34] good ventilation[39][40] and the replacement of old brood comb[41][42] are all techniques that can be attempted.
Chalkbrood was first recognized in 1900s in Europe,[34] and then spread to countries such as Argentina, Turkey, Philippines, Mexico, Chile, Central America and Japan.
When bee larvae take in spores, they may hatch in the gut, growing rapidly to form a collar-like ring near the larval heads.
[citation needed] In 2008, the chronic bee paralysis virus was reported for the first time in Formica rufa and another species of ant, Camponotus vagus.
This virus seemingly plays a role in cases of sudden collapse of honey bee colonies infested with the parasitic mite V.
Applying proteomics-based pathogen screening tools in 2010, researchers announced they had identified a co-infection of an Iridovirus;[66] specifically invertebrate iridescent virus type 6 (IIV-6) and N. ceranae in all CCD colonies sampled.
[74] In 2015, Lake Sinai virus (LSV) genomes were assembled and three main domains were discovered: Orf1, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and capsid protein sequences.
[76] Dysentery is a condition resulting from a combination of long periods of inability to make cleansing flights (generally due to cold weather) and food stores that contain a high proportion of indigestible matter.
[citation needed] Occasional warm days in winter are critical for honey bee survival; dysentery problems increase in likelihood during periods of more than two or three weeks with temperatures below 50 °F (10 °C).
It also can be caused by a pesticide hit that primarily kills off the adult population, or by a sudden drop in temperature during rapid spring build-up.
Because the bees forage up to several miles from the hive, they may fly into areas actively being sprayed by farmers or they may collect pollen from contaminated flowers.
[citation needed] Carbamate pesticides, such as carbaryl, can be especially pernicious since toxicity can take as long as two days to become evident, allowing infected pollen to be returned and distributed throughout the colony.
[77] European beekeepers observed a similar phenomenon in Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain,[78] and initial reports have also come in from Switzerland and Germany, albeit to a lesser degree.
Most new research suggests the neonicotinoid hypothesis was incorrect, however, and that pesticides play little role in CCD compared to Varroa and Nosema infestations.
