[5][6] Behr (2009) also notes that the Chǔ dialect of Old Chinese was influenced by several substrata, predominantly Kra-Dai, but also possibly Austroasiatic, Austronesian and Hmong-Mien.

One of the very few direct records of non-Sinitic speech in pre-Qin and Han times having been preserved so far is the "Song of the Yue Boatman" (Yueren Ge 越人歌), which was transcribed phonetically in Chinese characters in 528 BC, and found in the 善说 Shanshuo chapter of the Shuoyuan 说苑 or 'Garden of Persuasions'.

[11] James R. Chamberlain (2016) proposes that the Kra-Dai language family was formed as early as the 12th century BCE in the middle of the Yangtze basin, coinciding roughly with the establishment of the Chu state and the beginning of the Zhou dynasty.

[12] However, Pittayaporn (2014), after examining layers of Chinese loanwords in proto-Southwestern Tai and other historical evidence, proposes that the southwestward migration of southwestern Tai-speaking tribes from the modern Guangxi to the mainland of Southeast Asia must have taken place only sometime between the 8th–10th centuries CE,[13] long after 44 CE, when Chinese sources last mentioned Luo Yue in the Red River Delta.

[19] Later, Zhengzhang Shangfang (1991) followed Wei’s insight but used Thai script for comparison, since this orthography dates from the 13th century and preserves archaisms relative to the modern pronunciation.

[7] The following is a simplified interpretation of the "Song of the Yue Boatman" by Zhengzhang Shangfang quoted by David Holm (2013) with Thai script and Chinese glosses being omitted:[21][a] 濫ɦgraamsglamxevening兮ɦeeɦeePTCL抃bronsblɤɤnjoyful草tshuuʔcɤɤ, cɤʔto meet濫ɦgraamsglamxevening濫 兮 抃 草 濫ɦgraams ɦee brons tshuuʔ ɦgraamsglamx ɦee blɤɤn {cɤɤ, cɤʔ} glamxevening PTCL joyful {to meet} eveningOh, the fine night, we meet in happiness tonight!予laraawe, I昌thjang < khljangdjaanghbe apt to枑 澤gaah draagkraʔ - ʔdaakshy, ashamed予laraawe, I昌thjangdjaanghbe good at州tju < kljucɛɛuto row予 昌 {枑 澤} 予 昌 州la {thjang < khljang} {gaah draag} la thjang {tju < klju}raa djaangh {kraʔ - ʔdaak} raa djaangh cɛɛu{we, I} {be apt to} {shy, ashamed} {we, I} {be good at} {to row}I am so shy, ah!

I am so pleased!縵moonsmɔɔmdirty, ragged予laraawe, I乎haakhaakif昭tjau < kljaucauxprince澶daansdaanhYour Excellency秦dzindjinacquainted踰loruuxknow縵 予 乎 昭 澶 秦 踰moons la haak {tjau < kljau} daans dzin lomɔɔm raa haak caux daanh djin ruux{dirty, ragged} {we, I} if prince {Your Excellency} acquainted knowDirty though I am, ah!

I made acquaintance with your highness the Prince.滲srɯmszumhto hide惿djeʔ < gljeʔjaïheart隨sɦloicuaforever, constantly河gaaihato search湖gaahuanto yearn滲 惿 隨 河 湖srɯms {djeʔ < gljeʔ} sɦloi gaai gaazumh jaï cua ha huan{to hide} heart {forever, constantly} {to search} {to yearn}Hidden forever in my heart, ah!

定 dìng < dengH < *adeng-s ← Siamese diaaŋA1, Daiya tʂhəŋ2, Sipsongpanna tseŋ2, Malay (Austronesian) dindiŋ2, Tagalog diŋdiŋ2 wall 錯 cuò < tshak < *atshak ?

← Siamese tokD1s 'to set→sunset→west' (tawan-tok 'sun-set' = 'west'); Longzhou tuk7, Bo'ai tɔk7, Daiya tok7, Sipsongpanna tok7 < proto-Tai *tokD1s ǀ Sui tok7, Mak tok7, Maonan tɔk < proto-Kam-Sui *tɔkD1, Malay (Austronesian) suntuk running out of time Besides a limited number of lexical items left in Chinese historical texts, remnants of language(s) spoken by the ancient Yue can be found in non-Han substrata in Southern Chinese dialects, e.g.: Wu, Min, Hakka, Yue, etc.

[26] The following are some examples cited from Bauer (1987):[26] Yue-Hashimoto describes the Yue Chinese languages spoken in Guangdong as having a Tai influence.

Thus, Ferlus concludes that the Northern Vietic (Viet-Muong) speakers are the "most direct heirs" of the Dongsonians, who have resided in Southern part of Red River Delta and North Central Vietnam since the 1st millennium BC.