The final blow for the Karamanids was struck by Mehmed II who conquered their lands and re-assured a homogeneous rule in Anatolia.
Prior to the arrival of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes (the later Anglo-Saxons) what is now England was ruled by numerous Brittonic kings, which are discussed under Wales below.
There were various Christian petty kingdoms as well on the peninsula that, in the Middle Ages, consolidated into the modern states of Spain and Portugal.
The territories and hierarchy of all of these constantly shifted as old dynasties died and new ones formed, and as lower kings took higher positions.
Dál Riata was also an Irish (sub-)kingdom, which mostly lay in modern Argyll and Bute in Scotland but originated in and initially extended into north-eastern Ireland and was (nominally) subject to Ulaid.
The Pre-colonial petty kingdoms of the Philippines were locally known as Barangays and can be divided into culture groups, over whether they were predominantly Malay, Indianized, Sinified or Islamized.
According to the sagas, the folklands and provinces of eastern Svealand were united under the Swedish king at Gamla Uppsala.
The mountain was divided into kingdoms, which the British authority ultimately degraded to chiefdoms and which, by 1886, were governed by sovereign independent mangis (kings in Kichagga).
For the greater part of its history, Wales evolved into four kingdoms, or principalities, following the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century.
Mountainous terrain, forested river valleys, and remote upland moors contributed to a strong sense of localism and autonomy, though the Welsh people shared a deeply felt sentiment of nationality, as reflected in Welsh law codified in the 10th century.
According to historian Professor John Davies, there are four geographic regions more or less equal in terms of resources and population, from which four principalities emerged: Ynys Môn for Gwynedd, the Severn river valley for Powys, the Vale for Glamorgan and the lands up to the Wye (Morgannwg), and the Ystrad Tywi (Valley of the Tywi) for Deheubarth.
Rhodri the Great inherited Gwynedd from his father and Powys through his mother, and married Angharad of Seisyllwg (Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire) and ruling there by right of his wife.
Rhodri exerted great influence in the rest of Wales as well, and after his death his realms were divided amongst his sons.
Nevertheless, the House of Aberffraw of Gwynedd, as the senior line descendants of Rhodri the Great, claimed overlordship over the whole of Wales, though they would encounter resistance by junior dynasts of Dinefwr.