Polar aviation

Specific factors include low temperatures, frequent changes of meteorological conditions, polar night, the uncertainty of magnetic compasses, difficulties in radio communication, and lack of landmarks.

[1] Nevertheless, in terms of actual flight, S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897 is commonly considered to mark the beginning of polar aviation.

[2] In 1914, a Russian plane (Farman MF.11, pilot Jan Nagórski, mechanic Yevgeni Kuznetsov) flew beyond the Arctic Circle in the area of Novaya Zemlya in search of the North Pole expedition of Georgiy Sedov.

[5] In the modern era, from 1990s onwards, technological advancements, including the use of satellite imagery, have improved navigation and safety in Antarctic aviation.

Various countries operate specialised aircraft, including ski-equipped planes and helicopters, to support research activities and transport personnel.