[1][2][3] In Hinduism, it is a dharma-related term and refers to voluntarily accepting one's errors and misdeeds, confession, repentance, means of penance and expiation to undo or reduce the karmic consequences.
[4][5] Illustrative means to repent for intentional and unintentional misdeeds include admitting one's misdeeds, austerities, fasting, pilgrimage and bathing in sacred waters, ascetic lifestyle, yajna (fire sacrifice, homa), praying, yoga, giving gifts to the poor and needy, and others.
[6][4][7] Those texts that discuss Prāyaścitta, states Robert Lingat, debate the intent and thought behind the improper act, and consider penance appropriate when the "effect" had to be balanced, but "cause" was unclear.
[9] However, in some instances such as in Taittiriya Samhita verses 2.1.2.4 and 5.1.9.3, these words simply imply "accidental happening or mishap" and associated sense of remorse, and their context has nothing to do with "sin".
[10] The error or mistake mentioned in the ancient Hindu texts, such as the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of Vedic texts, as well as various Sutras and Shastras, include those related to ritual procedure such as letting the altar fire go out, or unintentional breaking a cooking pot, or an intentional inappropriate conduct, and any range of events where a person feels remorseful.
[11] A third derivation for the word is in Samavidhana Brahmana, where it is composed of pra, ayah and citta, which translates to "observances after knowing a certain thing has happened".
[12] The word is also used in Hindu texts to refer to actions to expiate one's errors or sins, such as adultery by a married person.
[17][18] Furthermore, states Patrick Olivelle, the ancient and medieval manuscripts, relating to prāyaścittas, that have survived show evidence of major corruption and interpolations over their history.
[20] The ancient texts suggest that there was significant debate and disagreement between Dharma scholars on what is the appropriate and sufficient penance or punishment for a given crime.
The Mahabharata for example, states Alf Hiltebeitel, asserts that one is not touched by adharma if one inhabits the space "where the Vedas, sacrifices (yajna), penance (prāyaścittas), truth (satya), restraint (damah), ahimsa and dharma are joined together".
[25] Instead, states Brhadyama smriti, the minor's guardian such as father, elder brother, family member or relative should perform the penance.
The penance requirements are reduced or increased, based on the age, circumstances and intent, depending on the source.
[26] Pratyāmnāyas emerged in medieval era, as a form of penance appropriate to the age, the time and the strength of the sinner.
These include: Upavasa (restricting diet or fasting) and Vrata (with vow) are the most common form of penance prescribed in Dharma texts of Hinduism.
Pilgrimages are not prominent in Dharmasastras such as Manusmriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti, but they are also found in the epic Mahabharata and the Puranas.
[43] According to Kane, many texts asserted that "tirtha-yatra (journey to a holy place) was a popular way for redemption of sins in the case of all classes of men and women.
[51] The concept of vratas date back to the Ṛgveda, and it refers to self-imposed restrictions on food and behavior, sometimes with a vow.
[54] Many prāyaścitta vratas in these texts suggest it include the feeding of "Brahmins, blind, poor and helpless", as well as other acts of charity.
[58] Śāntis are rites a person undertakes to come to terms or create peace with fears, doubts, portents or omens.
[63] The texts recommend remorse and repentance to be accompanied with austerity and reflection, as well as study to gain jnana (knowledge) for redemption and return to a dharmic life.
"[64] Some particular procedures a sinner must undergo include: paring of nails, shaving his head, bathing with clay, cow dung, and holy water, drinking clarified butter, and making a declaration of performing the penance indicated by the assembly of the learned male Brahmins, all on the day prior to commencing his penance.