Proto-globalization
First introduced by historians A. G. Hopkins and Christopher Bayly, the term describes the phase of increasing trade links and cultural exchange that characterized the period immediately preceding the advent of so-called "modern globalization" in the 19th century.
The period is marked by the shift of hegemony to Western Europe, the rise of larger-scale conflicts between powerful nations such as the Thirty Years' War, and demand for commodities, most particularly slaves.
The transfer of plant and animal crops and epidemic diseases associated with Alfred Crosby's concept of the Columbian exchange also played a central role in this process.
"[1] According to Hopkins, "globalization remains an incomplete process: it promotes fragmentation as well as uniformity; it may recede as well as advance; its geographical scope may exhibit a strong regional bias; its future direction and speed cannot be predicted with confidence—and certainly not by presuming that it has an 'inner logic' of its own.
[1] Before proto-globalization, globalizing networks were the product of "great kings and warriors searching for wealth and honor in fabulous lands, by religious wanderers,...and by merchant princes".
[3] Proto-globalization was also marked by two main political and economic developments: "the reconfiguration of the state systems, and the growth of finance, services, and pre-industrial manufacturing".
[5] The proto-globalization period was a time of "improved efficiency in the transactions sector" with the generation of goods such as sugar, tobacco, tea, coffee, and opium unlike anything the archaic globalization possessed.
[8] The Roman Empire's well-built aqueducts and cities and sturdy, effective naval fleets, ships and an organized system of paved roads also facilitated fast, easy travel and better networking and trade with neighboring nations and the provinces.
A popular trade during archaic globalization involved European merchants sailing to areas of India or China in order to purchase luxury items such as porcelain, silk, and spices.
[17] The shift into proto-globalization trade signified the "emergence of the modern international order" and the development of early capitalist expansion which began in the Atlantic during the 17th century and spread throughout the world by 1830.
[23] The large slave population thrived due to the demand for production from the Europeans who found it cheaper to import crops and goods rather than produce them on their own.
[31] English success with the production of tobacco caught the attention of many Europeans, specifically those colonized on Martinique and Guadeloupe, French islands.
In the 17th century, England dominated Venice and became the center for refining and cultivating sugar; this leadership was maintained until the rise of French industry.
The French and Indian War, fought between the European powers of France and England, led to a British victory and resulted in continued dominance in maritime enterprise.
One called for consequences against individuals that taxed without the consent of Parliament and labeled them as enemies of England, while the other stated that innovations in religion would result in the same tag.
The First Anglo-Dutch War was a naval conflict between England and the Dutch Republic from 1652 to 1654 and was over the competition in commercial maritime and was focused mainly in the East Indies.
Growing population in British territory throughout North America forced expansion west; however, this was met with resistance from the French and their Native American allies.
[40] French forces began entering British territory, building numerous forts in preparation to defend the newly acquired land.
This equated to almost half of the entire British army that were present at the engagement, and approximately 450 independence-seeking citizens (Americans-to-be) were killed, wounded, or captured.
The British were dominating in the beginning of the war, holding off Continental regulars and militia and gaining vast amounts of territory throughout North America.
In 1781, American and French forces were able to trap the escaping southern British Army at Yorktown, thus ending the major fighting of the Revolution.
[44] In 1748, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the War of the Austrian Succession, but failed to settle the commercial struggle between England and France in the West Indies, Africa and India.
[48] According to Sebastian Conrad, proto-globalization is marked with a "rise of national chauvinism, racism, Social Darwinism, and genocidal thinking" which came to be with relations to the "establishment of a world economy".
[49] Modelski describes the late period of proto-globalization as a "thick range of global networks extending throughout the world at high speed and covering all components of society".
[50] By the 1750s, contact between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas had grown into a stable multilateral interdependency which was echoed in the modern globalization period.
The ability to mobilize capital was due to the development of the Industrial Revolution and the beginnings of mechanical production (most prominent in Great Britain).
[54] During proto-globalization, "merchant capitalists in many societies quickly became aware of potential markets and new producers and began to link them together in new patterns of world trade.
[54] The importation of nutritious varieties from Central and South America created a more fertile and resilient population to forge ahead into modern globalization.
[61] The stable legal institutions developed in the late proto-globalization and early modern globalization period established economic advances, intellectual property rights (more predominantly in England), general geographical stability, and generational societal improvement.
In the early 19th century, European civilizations traveled the world to accumulate an "impressive knowledge about languages, religions, customs, and political orders of other countries.
