Protocooperation

None of the species rely on the relationship for survival, but all of the fungi, bacteria and higher plants take part in shaping soil composition and fertility.

Soil bacteria and fungi interrelate with each other, forming nutrients essential to the plants survival.

The ant searches for food on trees and shrubs that are hosts to honeydew-secreting species such as aphids, mealybugs, and some scales.

The plants, particularly those with large bright colourful flowers bearing nectar glands, experience cross pollination because of the insects activities.

The Egyptian plover removes insect pests from the backs of buffalo, antelope, giraffes, and rhinos.

L. bulgaricus produces peptides, free amino acids, and putrescine through proteolysis, which stimulate the growth of S. thermophilus.