and imaging studies (chest x-ray, CT scan, ultrasound) are often used to diagnose and classify the cause of pulmonary edema.

[4][5][6] Treatment is focused on three aspects: Pulmonary edema can cause permanent organ damage, and when sudden (acute), can lead to respiratory failure or cardiac arrest due to hypoxia.

Although rarely clinically measured, these forces allow physicians to classify and subsequently treat the underlying cause of pulmonary edema.

[18] It is often associated with severe hypertension[19] Typically, patients with the syndrome of flash pulmonary edema do not have chest pain are often not recognized as having a cardiovascular disease.

Treatment of FPE should include reducing systemic vascular resistance with nitroglycerin, providing supplemental oxygenation, and decreasing left ventricular filling pressure.

Other common symptoms include coughing up blood (classically seen as pink or red, frothy sputum), excessive sweating, anxiety, and pale skin.

The development of pulmonary edema may be associated with symptoms and signs of "fluid overload" in the lungs; this is a non-specific term to describe the manifestations of right ventricular failure on the rest of the body.

These symptoms may include peripheral edema (swelling of the legs, in general, of the "pitting" variety, wherein the skin is slow to return to normal when pressed upon due to fluid), raised jugular venous pressure and hepatomegaly, where the liver is excessively enlarged and may be tender or even pulsatile.

Additional symptoms such as fever, low blood pressure, injuries or burns may be present and can help characterize the cause and subsequent treatment strategies.

[12] Liver enzymes, inflammatory markers (usually C-reactive protein) and a complete blood count as well as coagulation studies (PT, aPTT) are also typically requested as further diagnosis.

[3] Chest X-ray has been used for many years to diagnose pulmonary edema due to its wide availability and relatively cheap cost.

[4] A chest X-ray will show fluid in the alveolar walls, Kerley B lines, increased vascular shadowing in a classical batwing peri-hilum pattern, upper lobe diversion (biased blood flow to the superior parts instead of inferior parts of the lung), and possibly pleural effusions.

In those with underlying heart or lung disease, effective control of congestive and respiratory symptoms can help prevent pulmonary edema.

[42] Therefore, if the level of consciousness is decreased it may be required to proceed to tracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation to prevent airway compromise.

Treatment of the underlying cause is the next priority; pulmonary edema secondary to infection, for instance, would require the administration of appropriate antibiotics or antivirals.

This can be treated with inotropic agents or by intra-aortic balloon pump, but this is regarded as temporary treatment while the underlying cause is addressed and the lungs recover.

[44] As pulmonary edema has a wide variety of causes and presentations, the outcome or prognosis is often disease-dependent and more accurately described in relation to the associated syndrome.