Quotation
A quotation or quote is the repetition of a sentence, phrase, or passage from speech or text that someone has said or written.
[1] In oral speech, it is the representation of an utterance (i.e. of something that a speaker actually said) that is introduced by a quotative marker, such as a verb of saying.
Quotations are also widely used in spoken language when an interlocutor wishes to present a proposition that they have come to know via hearsay.
A quotation can also refer to the repeated use of units of any other form of expression, especially parts of artistic works: elements of a painting, scenes from a movie or sections from a musical composition.
[6] Quotations are also commonly printed as a means of inspiration and to invoke philosophical thoughts from the reader.
Pragmatically speaking, quotations can also be used as language games (in the Wittgensteinian sense of the term) to manipulate social order and the structure of society.
The Star Trek catchphrase "Beam me up, Scotty" did not appear in that form in the original series.
"[15] Also referred to as inverted quotations, this technique of reversing the sequence of an existing phrase or formulation is commonly found in biblical texts, particularly the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament.
[16] It serves to evoke various emotional and rhetorical effects, mainly to draw extra attention from the reader or listener.
[17][18] By reversing a previously established sequence, authors can introduce surprise, emphasize key points, or create contrasts that highlight the text's significance and its connections to other biblical passages.
Quotatives must follow verb-subject order: Brackets are used to indicate an addition or a modification from the original quote.
Various uses of brackets in quotes are:[24] When "[sic]" is added, it means that errors are present in the original text.
[26][25] Both direct and indirect quotations in spoken discourse are not intended to be verbatim reproductions of an utterance that has been produced.
For example, two friends talk about their 10-year high school reunion that will take place in the future and propose what they would say.
In some languages, there is a discourse marker in addition to the verb of saying that functions as verbal quotation marks.
A quotative marker usually appears either before or after the reported speech or thought, depending on the syntax of the language.
[33] In African American Vernacular English, talkin' 'bout occurs as a verb of quotation, introducing both direct and indirect quotes, as in: In Japanese, the quotative particle to along with the verb of saying iu (say) occur after the quotation; the conjugated form of iu (say) is itta:[27] 太郎TaroTaroはwaTOP晴海 HarumiHarumiをoACC憎んでいるnikundeiruhatedとtoCOM言った。itta.said[37] 太郎 は 晴海 を 憎んでいる と 言った。Taro wa Harumi o nikundeiru to itta.Taro TOP Harumi ACC hated COM said"Taro said that he hated Harumi."
They will also use coreferenced pronouns to the direct quotation's first-person subject in the main clause: Shex said, "Ix..."; theyy said "wey ..." In many languages, the primary speaker may also attempt to quote an utterance in the same language the original speaker used, even if an interlocutor does not understand it; however, it is mainly context-dependent such as when telling stories.
[41] Quotative or hearsay particles are grammatical markers equivalent to full lexical verbs with meanings of "say, mention, tell, etc."
[40][42] Japanese, for example, uses a sentence-final quotative particle tte verbally to mean "I heard (quote)" with some uncertainty.
"明日ashitatomorrow晴れるhareruwill-be-fineって/と-tte/toQUOT言ってたittetasaidよyo.FP[42] 明日 晴れる って/と 言ってた よashita hareru -tte/to itteta yo.tomorrow will-be-fine QUOT said FP"(X) said that it would be fine tomorrow.
wurlanwordwurr-u-miyangga3PL-FUT-knowbud-ma-ra-ngarrugu3PL-say-PST-1PL.OBL.IRR[40] wurlan wurr-u-miyangga bud-ma-ra-ngarruguword 3PL-FUT-know 3PL-say-PST-1PL.OBL.IRR"They will know this word" they said to us.Quotative or hearsay evidentials provide knowledge of who or where information originated from in speech based on logical assumption.
Languages indicate this in various ways: through grammatical marking, additional words and phrases, prosody, gestures, or systematic affixes of verbs.
For example, English can express evidentials with an optional adverb, "Allegedly, Annie pulled the trigger."
Languages including Cusco Quechua, Kham, Tagalog, and Kaalallisut are documented as containing quotative evidentials.
[44] Nhêengatú, a Tupí-Guaraní lingua franca of North-West Amazonia, has a reported evidential marker paá.
She replies to Peter that she did not see John go herself, but rather heard it from a different source using the evidential marker "u-sú u-piniatika paá."
