Self-handicapping
Self-handicapping is a cognitive strategy by which people avoid effort in the hopes of keeping potential failure from hurting self-esteem.
[1] It was first theorized by Edward E. Jones and Steven Berglas,[2] according to whom self-handicaps are obstacles created, or claimed, by the individual in anticipation of failing performance.
People withdraw effort or create obstacles to successes so they can maintain public and private self-images of competence.
For instance, students frequently participate in self-handicapping behavior to avoid feeling bad about themselves if they do not perform well in class.
Examples of behavioral handicaps include alcohol consumption, the selection of unattainable goals, and refusal to practice a task or technique (especially in sports and the fine arts).
When people engage in these behaviors they are doing so in order to protect their own self-esteem or to reduce or inhibit unpleasant emotions.
Individuals that showed signs of unstable self-esteem were more likely to exhibit self-handicapping behaviors in an attempt to externalize failure and internalize success by action or performance setting choice.
)[6] This social comparison theory states that it is a fundamental human motive to obtain information based on their environment and gain feedback about their capabilities as such instead of setting themselves up for failure and refusing to take the blame.
The second being that they in fact make an effort which gives creates this sense of vulnerability and opens the door to being judged as being unintelligent or lacking the proper abilities.
[8] For example, individuals who score high on the SHS put in less effort and practice less when concerned about their ability to perform well in a given task.
[12][13] They are also more likely than those rated low self-handicappers (LSH) to mention obstacles or external factors that may hinder their success, prior to performing.
[4] While research suggests that claimed self-handicaps are used by men and women alike,[8][22] several studies have reported significant differences.
In the late 1950s, Goffman and Heider published research concerning the manipulation of outward behavior for the purpose of impression management.
Previous research has established that self-handicapping is motivated by uncertainty about one's ability[2] or, more generally, anticipated threats to self-esteem.
[2] More recent research finds that, generally, people are willing to use handicaps to protect their self-esteem (e.g., discounting failings) but are more reluctant to employ them for self-enhancement.
[27] This evidence highlights the importance of self-handicaps in self-protection although it offers no support for the handicap acting to self-enhance.
In contrast, the subsequent performances of those swimmers who had more optimistic attributions concerning their poor swimming times were not affected.
[35] Results have shown that people who are in positive mood are more likely to engage in self-handicapping, even at the cost of jeopardizing future performance.
Research suggests that among those who self-handicap, self-imposed obstacles may relieve the pressure of a performance and allow one to become more engaged in a task.
[19][38] Additional long-term costs of self-handicapping include worse health and well-being, more frequent negative moods and higher use of various substances.
Self-handicapping assessed on the first occasion predicted coping with problems by denial, blaming others and criticizing oneself as well as depression and somatic complaints.
For example, if people predict they are going to perform poorly on tasks, they create obstacles, such as taking drugs and consuming alcohol, so that they feel that they have diverted the blame from themselves if they actually do fail.
This study, however, demonstrates that this claim is only partially accurate because the reduction of self-handicapping is only apparent in an area unrelated to the present self-esteem risk.
