Social network
Georg Simmel authored early structural theories in sociology emphasizing the dynamics of triads and "web of group affiliations".
Thus, one common criticism of social network theory is that individual agency is often ignored[6] although this may not be the case in practice (see agent-based modeling).
In anthropology, the foundation for social network theory is the theoretical and ethnographic work of Bronislaw Malinowski,[12] Alfred Radcliffe-Brown,[13][14] and Claude Lévi-Strauss.
[15] A group of social anthropologists associated with Max Gluckman and the Manchester School, including John A. Barnes,[16] J. Clyde Mitchell and Elizabeth Bott Spillius,[17][18] often are credited with performing some of the first fieldwork from which network analyses were performed, investigating community networks in southern Africa, India and the United Kingdom.
[19] In sociology, the early (1930s) work of Talcott Parsons set the stage for taking a relational approach to understanding social structure.
In general, social networks are self-organizing, emergent, and complex, such that a globally coherent pattern appears from the local interaction of the elements that make up the system.
Network research on dyads may concentrate on structure of the relationship (e.g. multiplexity, strength), social equality, and tendencies toward reciprocity/mutuality.
Egonetwork analysis focuses on network characteristics, such as size, relationship strength, density, centrality, prestige and roles such as isolates, liaisons, and bridges.
Subset level research may focus on distance and reachability, cliques, cohesive subgroups, or other group actions or behavior.
The highest-degree nodes are often called "hubs", and may serve specific purposes in their networks, although this depends greatly on the social context.
In contrast, many of the mathematical models of networks that have been studied in the past, such as lattices and random graphs, do not show these features.
The basis of Heterophily Theory was the finding in one study that more numerous weak ties can be important in seeking information and innovation, as cliques have a tendency to have more homogeneous opinions as well as share many common traits.
This concept is similar to Mark Granovetter's theory of weak ties, which rests on the basis that having a broad range of contacts is most effective for job attainment.
Mechanisms such as Dual-phase evolution explain how temporal changes in connectivity contribute to the formation of structure in social networks.
The study of social networks is being used to examine the nature of interdependencies between actors and the ways in which these are related to outcomes of conflict and cooperation.
Experiments and large-scale field trials (e.g., by Nicholas Christakis and collaborators) have shown that cascades of desirable behaviors can be induced in social groups, in settings as diverse as Honduras villages,[56][57] Indian slums,[58] or in the lab.
[59] Still other experiments have documented the experimental induction of social contagion of voting behavior,[60] emotions,[61] risk perception,[62] and commercial products.
[63] In demography, the study of social networks has led to new sampling methods for estimating and reaching populations that are hard to enumerate (for example, homeless people or intravenous drug users.)
Sociologists, such as Mark Granovetter, have developed core principles about the interactions of social structure, information, ability to punish or reward, and trust that frequently recur in their analyses of political, economic and other institutions.
The relational dimension explains the nature of these ties which is mainly illustrated by the level of trust accorded to the network of organizations.
[78] The cognitive dimension analyses the extent to which organizations share common goals and objectives as a result of their ties and interactions.
For example, newly arrived immigrants can make use of their social ties to established migrants to acquire jobs they may otherwise have trouble getting (e.g., because of unfamiliarity with the local language).
This area of research produces vast numbers of commercial applications as the main goal of any study is to understand consumer behaviour and drive sales.
[48] Such a player can mobilize social capital by acting as a "broker" of information between two clusters that otherwise would not have been in contact, thus providing access to new ideas, opinions and opportunities.
British philosopher and political economist John Stuart Mill, writes, "it is hardly possible to overrate the value of placing human beings in contact with persons dissimilar to themselves....
Full communication with exploratory mindsets and information exchange generated by dynamically alternating positions in a social network promotes creative and deep thinking.
[85] By bridging structural holes and mobilizing social capital, players can advance their careers by executing new opportunities between contacts.
Information and control benefits of structural holes are still valuable in firms that are not quite as inclusive and cooperative on the firm-wide level.
He found that managers who often discussed issues with other groups were better paid, received more positive job evaluations and were more likely to be promoted.
In a computer-mediated communication context, social pairs exchange different kinds of information, including sending a data file or a computer program as well as providing emotional support or arranging a meeting.
