Stradivarius
The exact methods Stradivari used to produce the instruments' famed sound remain unknown, with theories ranging from the unique quality of the wood used during the Little Ice Age to the varnishes and chemical treatments applied.
Despite extensive scientific research, including modern acoustic analysis and CT scans, no one has been able to conclusively replicate or fully explain the tonal qualities of Stradivarius instruments.
[6] The woods used included spruce for the top, willow for the internal blocks and linings, and maple for the back, ribs, and neck.
Scientists at National Taiwan University have detected trace amounts of aluminum, copper, and calcium in wood from Stradivari violins.
He reported in 2010 that even when varnish is no longer visible to the human eye on the surface of older violins, it can be detected within the top layers of cells.
Echard's findings suggest that Stradivari used a mixture of common Cremonese resin, oil, and pigment as a varnish, rather than making his own.
These results suggest that differences in density differentials in the material may have played a significant role in the sound production of classical violins.
[9][10] A Stradivarius made in the 1680s, or during Stradivari's "Long Pattern" period from 1690 to 1700, could be worth hundreds of thousands to several million U.S. dollars at today's prices.
Vice magazine reported in May 2013 that "in recent years, Stradivarius investment funds have started to appear, pushing already astronomical prices even higher".
[42][43] In a particularly famous test on a BBC Radio 3 programme in 1977, the violinists Isaac Stern and Pinchas Zukerman and the violin expert and dealer Charles Beare tried to distinguish between the "Chaconne" Stradivarius, a 1739 Guarneri del Gesú, an 1846 Vuillaume, and a 1976 British violin played behind a screen by a professional soloist.
[44] Violinists and others have criticized these tests on various grounds such as that they are not double-blind (in most cases), the judges are often not experts, and the sounds of violins are hard to evaluate objectively and reproducibly.
[43][45] In a test in 2009, the British violinist Matthew Trusler played his 1711 Stradivarius, said to be worth two million U.S. dollars, and four modern violins made by the Swiss violin-maker Michael Rhonheimer [de].
According to this analysis, treatment improves the sound radiation ratio to the level of cold-climate wood considered to have superior resonance.
[54] A more modern theory attributes tree growth during a time of global low temperatures during the Little Ice Age associated with unusually low solar activity of the Maunder Minimum, circa 1645 to 1750, during which cooler temperatures throughout Europe are believed to have caused stunted and slowed tree growth, resulting in unusually dense wood.
[55][11] Further evidence for this "Little Ice Age theory" comes from a simple examination of the dense growth rings in the wood used in Stradivari's instruments.
[57] In 2008, researchers from the Leiden University Medical Center in the Netherlands, announced further evidence that wood density caused the claimed high quality of these instruments.
Croatian wood was traded by Venetian merchants of the era, and is still used today by local luthiers and craftsfolk for musical instruments.
In a 2009 study co-authored with Renald Guillemette and Clifford Spiegelman, Nagyvary obtained shavings from a Stradivarius violin and examined them, and analysis indicated they contained "borax, fluorides, chromium and iron salts.
[62][clarification needed] Stradivari made mainly violins but also violas, cellos and some plucked string instruments (five guitars, two mandolins and one harp are known).
