List of measuring instruments

These instruments may range from simple objects such as rulers and stopwatches to electron microscopes and particle accelerators.

This figure can then be converted to a measure of energy by multiplying it by the calorific value of the gas.

And a substance-like property, — the entropy; for example: One glowing coal won't heat a pot of water, but a hundred will.

Phase change calorimeter's energy value divided by absolute temperature give the entropy exchanged.

At absolute zero temperature any sample is assumed to contain no entropy (see Third law of thermodynamics for further information).

Then the following two active calorimeter types can be used to fill the sample with entropy until the desired temperature has been reached: (see also Thermodynamic databases for pure substances) Processes transferring energy from a non-thermal carrier to heat as a carrier do produce entropy (Example: mechanical/electrical friction, established by Count Rumford).

Concerning a given sample, a proportionality factor relating temperature change and energy carried by heat.

(The terminology preference in the heading indicates that the classical use of heat bars it from having substance-like properties.)

The temperature coefficient of energy divided by a substance-like quantity (amount of substance, mass, volume) describing the sample.

This includes mostly instruments which measure macroscopic properties of matter: In the fields of solid-state physics; in condensed matter physics which considers solids, liquids, and in-betweens exhibiting for example viscoelastic behavior; and furthermore, in fluid mechanics, where liquids, gases, plasmas, and in-betweens like supercritical fluids are studied.

See also Category:Electric and magnetic fields in matter Phase conversions like changes of aggregate state, chemical reactions or nuclear reactions transmuting substances, from reactants into products, or diffusion through membranes have an overall energy balance.

Especially at constant pressure and constant temperature, molar energy balances define the notion of a substance potential or chemical potential or molar Gibbs energy, which gives the energetic information about whether the process is possible or not - in a closed system.

Microphones in general, sometimes their sensitivity is increased by the reflection- and concentration principle realized in acoustic mirrors.

Especially X-rays and gamma rays transfer enough energy in non-thermal, (single-) collision processes to separate electron(s) from an atom.

This could include chemical substances, rays of any kind, elementary particles, and quasiparticles.

Photometry is the measurement of light in terms of its perceived brightness to the human eye.

Colored pixels can be obtained by combining three gray-scaled images which usually interpret the polarization of electromagnetic waves.

However, the role of instruments in military affairs rose exponentially with the development of technology via applied science, which began in the mid-19th century and has continued through the present day.

Special features of these instruments may include ease of use, speed, reliability, and accuracy.