[11] During this same time period, Dubrovnik and the surrounding area were described as a part of the Croatian (Grwasiah) entity, in one of the works by the famous Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi.

In his book Nuzhat al-Mushataq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq (English: "Joy for those who wish to sail over the world") from 1154, he mentioned Dubrovnik as the southernmost city of "the country of Croatia and Dalmatia".

[11][better source needed] The present shape of the walls was designed following a basic city plan dating back to 1292, when the port city was rebuilt following a fire,[4] when Dubrovnik was under the Republic of Venice;[13] the peak of construction lasted from the beginning of the 15th century until the latter half of the 16th century during the age of the independent Republic of Ragusa and it was a Renaissance work of Italian and Croatian architects and builders.

[7] The largest stimulus for continued development and emergency repairs and works of the Ragusan fortresses came as a result of the danger of unexpected attack by Turkish military forces, especially after they conquered Constantinople in 1453.

A strategic treaty with Turkey protected Ragusa's liberty and maintained the opportunity for a major trading role between the Ottoman Empire and Europe.

[11] The Pile Gates are a well-fortified complex with multiple doors, defended by Fort Bokar and the moat that ran around the outside section of the city walls.

[11] At the entrance gate to the Old Town, on the western side of the land walls, there is a stone bridge between two Gothic arches, which were designed by the architect Paskoje Miličević in 1471.

[17][better source needed] During the republican era, the wooden drawbridge to the Pile Gate was hoisted each night with considerable pomp in a ceremony which delivered the city's keys to the Ragusan rector.

[11][18][better source needed] The Outer Gate of Ploče was designed and constructed by architect Mihajlo Hranjac in 1628, while the two bridges to the Revelin Fortress were built in the 15th century by Paskoje Miličević.

[6] The purpose of these walls were to help defend the city from sea-based attacks, particularly from the Republic of Venice, which was often considered a threat to Dubrovnik's safety.

The Kase jetty (Kaše Breakwater) was built in 1485, according to the design of Paskoje Miličević, in order to defend the harbour and protect it from south-eastern winds and waves.

The entire layout of the Dubrovnik streets, as well as a range of expansions, was intended for fast and effective communication with the forts of the city walls.

The present-day street of Damjan Juda was formed in the 15th century when the sewage system was completed, and building houses against the western city wall was no longer allowed.

[18][better source needed] The Minčeta Tower was built by a local builder named Nicifor Ranjina and Italian engineers sent by Pope Pius II in 1463, at the height of the Turkish threat.

[18] In the middle of the 15th century, around the earlier quadrilateral fort, Michelozzo built a new round tower using new warfare technique and joined it to the new system of low scarp walls.

[18] The St. John Fortress (Croatian: Sveti Ivan), often called Mulo Tower, is a complex monumental building on the southeastern side of the old city port, controlling and protecting its entrance.

The name Revelin derives from rivelino (ravelin), a term in military architecture which refers to work built opposite the city gate in order to afford better protection from enemy attack.

Danger of Venetian assault suddenly increased in the times of the First Holy League, and it was necessary to strengthen this vulnerable point of the city fortifications.

The Senate hired Antonio Ferramolino, an experienced builder of fortresses in the service of the Spanish admiral Doria, a trusted friend of the Republic.

[18] St. Lawrence Fortress (Croatian: Lovrijenac), often called Dubrovnik's Gibraltar, is located outside the western city walls, 37 metres (121 ft) above sea level.

Two drawbridges lead to the fort, there being the inscription "Non Bene Pro Toto Libertas Venditur Auro" – "Freedom is not to be sold for all the treasures in the world.

[26][better source needed] Due to its strategic importance, the Republic of Ragusa constantly invested in the maintenance of the fortress, which contained a cistern, a powder storage, wine and food cellars, sentry-boxes, military barracks, and sanctuary buildings to accommodate refugees from nearby villages in the event of war.

[29] Finally, the 866–867 Saracens' siege of Dubrovnik, which lasted fifteen months, was raised due to the intervention of Basil I, who sent a fleet under the command of Niketas Oryphas in relief of the city.

[29] With the weakening of Byzantium, Venice began to see Ragusa as a rival who needed to be brought under her control, but the attempt to conquer the city in 948 failed.

[31] After some territorial disputes, war broke out between Stefan Nemanja, Grand prince of Raška, and the city of Dubrovnik, at that time under Norman suzerainty.

In 1806, the forces of the First French Empire, led by General Jacques Lauriston entered the territory of the Republic, violating its strict neutrality.

They demanded to be allowed to rest and be provided with food and drink in the city before continuing on to take possession of their newly acquired holdings in the Bay of Kotor.

Dubrovnik was besieged and attacked by forces of the Serb-dominated Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) in late 1991, with the major fighting ending in early 1992, and the Croatian counterattack finally lifting the siege and liberating the area in mid-1992.

At the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the prosecution alleged that, "It was the objective of the Serb forces to detach this area from Croatia and to annex it to Montenegro.

In 1993, the Institute for the Rehabilitation of Dubrovnik and UNESCO estimated the total cost for restoring public, private, and religious buildings, streets, squares, fountains, ramparts, gates, and bridges at $9,657,578.