Zhao gained considerable strength from the military reforms initiated during the reign of King Wuling, but suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Qin at the Battle of Changping.

Its territory included areas in the modern provinces of Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Shanxi and Shaanxi.

It bordered the states of Qin, Wei, and Yan, as well as various nomadic peoples including the Hu and Xiongnu.

Zhao was home to the administrative philosopher Shen Dao, Confucian Xun Kuang, and Gongsun Long, who is affiliated to the school of names.

The resulting Battle of Guiling was a major victory for Qi, reducing the threat to Zhao's southern border.

Zhao soldiers were ordered to dress like their Hu neighbours and to replace war chariots with cavalry archers (胡服骑射; 胡服騎射; húfúqíshè).

With the advanced technology of the Chinese states and tactics of the steppe nomads, Zhao's cavalry became a powerful force.

As a result, the newly empowered Zhao were more evenly matched with their greatest threat, Qi.

Although the forces of Wei and Chu saved Handan from a subsequent siege by the victorious Qin, Zhao would never recover from the enormous loss of troops in the battle.

The Zhao king Youmiu fell for the plot: on the false advice of disloyal court officials and Qin infiltrators, he ordered Li Mu's execution and relieved Sima Shang of his duties.

In 205 BC, Chen Yu's subordinate in Dai, Xia Yue (夏說), was defeated by Liu Bang's generals Han Xin and Zhang Er.

Wu Qi, to whom work is attributed, explained that the government and nature of the people are linked to the physical environment and territory in which they live.