Zoophily
These plant-animal relationships are often mutually beneficial because of the food source provided in exchange for pollination.
Not producing such rewards is one benefit of using abiotic pollinators, but a cost associated with this approach is that the pollen may be distributed more randomly.
[7] Despite their complete dependence on flowers for sustenance as imagoes, butterflies are generally poor pollinators, lacking specific structures to carry pollen.
Unlike its relatives, this orchid species exhibits diurnal anthesis, a weak scent which is virtually absent at night, and has short spurs containing small amounts of relatively dilute sucrose-rich nectar -these are all considered psychophilous traits.
They do not require as much nectar as the fast-flying hawk moths, and the flowers tend to be small (though they may be aggregated in heads).
[11] Flies tend to be important pollinators in high-altitude and high-latitude systems, where they are numerous and other insect groups may be lacking.
In contrast, male fruit flies (Tephritidae) are enticed by specific floral attractants emitted by some wild orchids which do not produce nectar.
[22] There is also some evidence that the giant inflorescence, which heats itself to 36 °C, thus shines like an invisible infrared beacon in the dark of night on the jungle floor, unseen by humans but detectable by insects.
[23] The blooms of Philodendron adamantinum are able to stick a glob of resin on the otherwise smooth back of the beetles it attracts, modifying them so they are better equipped to carry pollen to the next inflorescence.
However, only two species of lizard from New Zealand has been shown to carry pollen as of 2003, although it is unknown if they actually pollinate flowers.
Both these species are not dependant on nectar as a food source, and do not appear to have evolved specific adaptations to exploit it.
Despite the lack of evidence, the authors nonetheless theorise that some plants on small islands may have mutualistically evolved to accommodate lizard pollination.
Between them, they visit the flowers of at least four species of plant: Metrosideros excelsa, Phormium tenax, Myoporum laetum and in one case Hebe bollonsii, although the structure of the flowers of the last three species do not allow pollen transfer to occur during feeding by lizards, which are better seen as robbers of nectar, these plants are adapted for bird or insect pollination.
They also theorise that the colour red that the flowers of most species Metrosideros have, which generally attracts birds, might somehow also serve to repel insects and thus leave more nectar for the geckoes.
There does not appear to be any mutualistic relationship between the geckoes and Metrosideros excelsa, neither species requires the presence of the other to thrive.
Hummingbirds, found only in the Americas, and many other bird species throughout the world are obligate nectarivores and important pollinators.
These include sunbirds, sugarbirds, honeyeaters, flowerpeckers and honeycreepers, these have long narrow bills suited for probing flowers.
[29] Plants pollinated by bats often have white or pale nocturnal flowers that are large and bell shaped.
Many of these flowers have large amounts of nectar, and emit a smell that attracts bats, such as a strong fruity or musky odor.
Traits of the M. depressa flowers support non-flying mammal pollination: it has a dull-colored and very sturdy inflorescence at ground level, has a strong yeasty odor, and secretes copious amounts of sucrose-dominant nectar during the night.
