[8][9][10] During lactation in prey species, including cattle, a reduction in fear responsiveness of the dam to novel and potentially dangerous situations facilitates the expression of defensive aggression in protection of the young.
[7] This is commonly seen in cattle due to high stocking densities which could potentially decrease the amount of space each cow has, as well as limit their ability to have access to feed, even impacting the ruminal environment.
[16] These are aggressive behaviors associated with lack of comfort, inadequate lying space or time in which the physical environment fails to provide the animal.
[27][28][29] Stress has extreme negative impacts on growth and reproduction in cattle, as the pituitary-adrenal system is very sensitive to different environmental stressors such as inadequate space, feed, poor quality housing, new objects or individuals, or new living/housing system [30] Pain is defined as an effective state and can only be truly measured indirectly in both humans and animals, that may present some challenges in decision making regarding pain management.
Flight zones should be considered when handling or moving cattle, as they have a blind spot and may get spooked easily if unaware if there is an individual around.
Providing environments for cows in which minimize any environmental stressor can not only improve the wellbeing and welfare of the animal, but can also reduce aggressive behaviors.
[30] Regular examinations (physical and physiological) should be done to determine the condition of the cow, which could show signs of cuts, or lesions, as well as the secretion or hormones inside the body such as cortisol.
[33] Setting breeding goals can be a potential way to select for desired temperamental traits, further decreasing the risk of raising aggressive cattle.