Notes: Dorsey & Swanton (1912) postulated phonemic vowel length, which was verified by Haas and Swadesh in speaking with Emma Jackson in 1934.

Most exceptions are caused by vowel deletion: tohoxk from tohoxka "horse."

Verbs whose stems end in -ti or -hi may optionally change to -x before the negative mode marker ni: Stems ending in -si optionally become -s. The dative marker ki becomes kiy before a vowel.

(However, Einaudi cites one counterexample, ||ki + į|| > /kiį/ 'they were drinking it for him', perhaps with a glottal stop inserted.)

That may lead to otherwise-disallowed clusters, including geminates: The following rule applies to compounds: Vn#C > V̨#C The following rules are conditioned by person markers on nouns and verbs: Stems beginning with /h/ and some beginning with /y/ (morphophonemically distinguished as ||Y||) undergo the following (obligatory for h-stems but optional for Y-stems): ||Y, h|| > ∅ / ||nk||___, ||ay||___ However, that does not apply for y-initial (rather than Y-initial) stems: The following rule applies before roots and the dative marker ki: ||nk|| > /x/ /___k ||nk|| > /ǫ/ /___n (optionally /m/, /p/) ||nk|| > /n/ /___other consonants (optional except before /p/ and for /m/ unless it was covered by the previous rule) ||nk|| > /nk/ /___V (optionally) ||ay|| > /aya~ya/ /___k,x ||ay|| > /i/ /___C ||ay|| > /ay~y~iy/ /___V The use of different allomorphs in free variation is attested for some verbs.

The next four rules combine personal affixes and so apply only to verbs: ||nk + ay|| > /į/ /___C ||nk + ay|| > /ny/ /___V ||nk + ∅|| > /ax/ /___k ||ay + nk|| > /yąk/ (which may undergo further changes as described above) The subjunctive mode marker ||xo|| undergoes the following rule: ||xo|| > /xyo/ / i___ / į___ The habitual mode marker ||xa|| optionally undergoes the following rule: ||xa|| > /xya/ / Vf___ The auxiliary ande undergoes the following rule: ||ande|| > /ant/ / ___k The three word classes in Biloxi are verbs, substantives (nouns and pronouns), and particles.

Particles serve many functions, including noun phrase marking and acting as adverbials.

Examples of inflected nouns are below: Here are examples of optionally-inflected nouns: Personal pronouns are formed by inflecting the root indi for person and number.

They may be marked for plurality as denani and henani, but that is very rare since they are used if plurality is unmarked elsewhere, and it is marked on the verb in noun phrases with classificatory verbs: Verbs inflect for person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular vs. plural), and mode (many possibilities, including some less-well understood mode markers).

Classificatory verbs specify the subject's position (sitting, standing, etc.)

However, -tu is not used: Some (but not all) verbs of motion mark plurality with the prefix a- inserted directly before the root: But there are counterexamples (even ones derived from the same roots): daha marks plural objects when they are not specified elsewhere.

Also, it may appear on its own in embedded sentence: nani 'can' may appear before 'xyo', lending it the meaning 'must' or 'must have': The negative form of the verb duti 'eat' is kdux ni 'he did not eat', and not the expected kudux ni.

xye/xe may be followed by xo, but it's unclear whether this lends additional meaning: wa sometimes may be glossed as 'always'.

The dative marker ki- (kiy- before vowels) is used after thematic prefixes.

It is peculiar in that it may be used if someone else's body parts are the direct object (the "dative of possession").

It appears as kik- before ǫ 'do, make' and gives it a benefactive gloss (kikǫ daha 'he made for them').

įxki- (or ixki-, perhaps because of the denasalizing morphopohnemic rule above) marks reflexives.

20-99 are derived via the formula 'X sitting on Y Zs' ('Z Y Xaxehe') Ordinal numerals (1st, 2nd, 3rd) are not attested.

Its lexical categories include interjections (I), adverbials (A), subjects (S), objects (O), verbs (V), and connectives (C).

(see below) Interjections may be: Vocatives are almost always unmarked: There are only three exceptions: Adverbials most often appear directly before the verb, but they may also act as subjects and object.

Two subjects may be juxtaposed with reciprocal verbs: Additives may be expressed by juxtaposition followed by the np yą, but this is not used often due to ambiguity (it might be interpreted as a possessive phrase): Alternatives are expressed with juxtaposition followed by the particle ha (not otherwise an np): Biloxi has many nominal particles, and for the most part their function is unclear.

A non-exhaustive list: For the most part it's unclear what conditions the use of a particular np (or ∅), but the following can be said: Simple verbs (not causatives or expanded verbs, see below) must contain a person marker, root, and number marker, and optionally the following: Prefixes: Suffixes: Biloxi contains a defective auxiliary verb (h)andE/yukE (ande is used in singular, yuke for plural).

The plural marker -tu is not used with yuke since the defective form itself already serves to mark number.

Examples: Generally to express the negative the stem is negated, rather than the auxiliary:[9] Biloxi contains five classificatory verbs, which indicate duration and position of the subject: (See above for morphophonemic explanation of ||mąki|| > /max/.)

They may be used alone as verbs (kuhik mąx ką 'when it was lying high') but often reinforce synonymous roots: They are used mostly with animates.