[5] Traditional Chinese musical instruments were classified into eight groups (bayin[broken anchor]) according to their materials: gourd, earthenware, hide, wood, stone, bronze, silk and bamboo.

While some such as Xiao Youmei, Yuen Ren Chao and He Luting promoted Western music, others defended traditional Chinese and worked to improve it.

Liu also wrote for the ensemble and expanded on traditional musical notation so it may be used for an orchestra, specifying ornamentation details and tempo and the use of particular instruments in specific sections.

Suggested improvements included a change in orchestra layout, the use of staff notation and also modifications to existing instruments.

In fact, the roles of cello, double bass and Western percussion in modern Chinese orchestra are so important that almost all compositions use them.

Besides hitting the strings with the rubberised ends, the mallets can also be turned over to create a sharper note (this technique is called fanzhu).

Fingernails allow performance of polyphonic solo music, however this advantage is not useful in orchestras, where the zhongruan mainly plays the accompaniment.

The bowed strings section of the modern Chinese orchestra includes the gaohu (高胡), erhu (二胡), zhonghu (中胡), cello (大提琴) and double bass (低音提琴 or 倍大提琴).

The gaohu (highest-pitched of the series) and zhonghu (lowest-pitched huqin) are proportionately fewer in numbers in the Chinese orchestra.

The uniqueness of the huqin series lies in how music can be produced from two fine metal strings less than 2 mm apart, without any frets or fingerboards.

Well-known solo pieces for the erhu includes Sanmen Gorge Capriccio, Guang Ming Xing as well as Lan Huahua.

The main types of dizis frequently used in the wind section are the bangdi (梆笛), the qudi (曲笛), and occasionally the xindi (新笛).

The most common types of sheng today include a 17-pipe instrument and a modified version for contemporary compositions, which has an expanded range of 21–42 pipes.

Like its Western counterpart, instruments used in the percussion section of the modern Chinese orchestra vary according to the musical work.

The character of the drum was first recorded in the ancient inscriptions on oracle bones and tortoise shells dating from the Shang dynasty.

The more popular percussion instruments include the luo, gongs, gu (drums), bo (cymbals), and bianzhong.

A large gong can create a stately and imposing atmosphere; dramatic effects can be achieved with the tanggu, muyu and qing also can invoke an element of mystery.

The drum frame is constructed of thick wedges of hardwood glued together in a circle, wrapped with a metal band.

The type used for Beijing opera and other northern Chinese musical dramas, with a smaller central striking area, has a relatively solid tone quality.

In the southern gong and drum ensemble, the bangu has a larger striking area, rendering a looser and softer tone.

The largest type (over 120 cm in diameter) called dachaoluo, known for its deep and grave tone, is used in official settings like weddings, funerals and temple ceremonies.

In a recently redesigned type, the number of gongs was increased, ranging from 29 to 38, and two mallets with either hard or soft tips are used for different tonal effects.

Its wooden body, entirely painted red with decorative patterns, is covered with two drumheads of cowhide or pig skin.

An account of this instrument was found in the literature of the Ming dynasty (AD 1368–1644): "The muyu is carved from a block of wood and into the shape of a fish, then its interior is hollowed out.

The larger type is primarily used in Buddhist temples, but recently appears in sets, varying in diameters and tonal qualities.

Its long history dates back to the Shang dynasty (1766–1122 BC), when a set of 3 bronze bells was common, though the earlier earthenware type of the late Stone Age was unearthed in Shaanxi province.

The inscriptions on the bells unite to form a literary text on the large tone system of the bianzhong, valuable sources for the study of the musical culture in the Warring States period during the Eastern Zhou dynasty (475–221 BC).

With the construction for two different pitches from a single bell and its unique casting methods, the bianzhong is one of the more unusual instruments of traditional Chinese music.

The lion drum head is made of thick, durable goat skin, and its wooden body is normally decorated with intricate hand-drawn drawings.

One example of such modern compositions is The Great Wall Capriccio, a concerto composed in 1981 for erhu by Liu Wenjin.