Born on 19 May 1819 in Saint Petersburg as the son Vladimir Fyodorovich Adlerberg, a close friend of Nicholas I, and his wife, Maria Vasilievna Nelidova (1797-1870).

Nikolay Adlerberg graduated from the Page Corps of His Majesty in 1837, and in 1838 was appointed aide-de-camp to the Emperor; he participated in wars led by Russia in Caucasus (1841–1842) and Hungary in 1849.

Adlerberg resigned in 1852 and was attached to the Russian Ministry of the Interior, receiving the title of chamberlain in the court of His Majesty.

Count Adlerberg served as governor-general of Simferopol and Taurida Governorate (1854–1856) during an uneasy period of the Crimean War.

On 22 May 1881 the Count was named member of the State Council, but was pensioned off from this post after assassination of his protector, Emperor Alexander II of Russia.