Long-distance running
On the other side, anaerobic respiration occurs when the body is deprived of oxygen, and this is common towards the final stretch of races when there is a drive to speed up to a greater intensity.
The capacity for endurance running is also found in migratory ungulates and a limited number of terrestrial carnivores, such as bears, dogs, wolves, and hyenas.
Anthropological observations of modern hunter-gatherer communities have provided accounts for long-distance running as a historic method for hunting among the San of the Kalahari,[6] American Indians,[7] and Aboriginal Australians.
[8] In this method, the hunter would run at a slow and steady pace for between one hour and a few days, in an area where the animal has no place to hide.
[9] The skeletal structure of a 12-year-old Nariokatome boy has been suggested as proof that early humans from 1.5 million years ago ate more meat and fewer plants, and hunted by running down animals.
A concomitant decrease in stroke volume occurs with the initial increase in heart rate at the onset of exercise.
[22]: 5 [24] Other physiological factors affecting a marathon runner's aerobic capacity include pulmonary diffusion, mitochondria enzyme activity, and capillary density.
As of 2016[update] the physiological basis for this was uncertain, but it seemed to depend on the cumulative years of running and reaches a cap that longer individual training sessions cannot overcome.
[25] Lactate threshold training involves tempo workouts that are meant to build strength and speed, rather than improve the cardiovascular system's efficiency in absorbing and transporting oxygen.
The artificial elevation of these fatty acids along with endurance training demonstrates a marathon runner's ability to sustain higher intensities for longer periods of time.
The prolonged sustenance of running intensity is attributed to a high turnover rate of fatty acids that allows the runner to preserve glycogen stores later into the race.
The majority of these East African successful runners come from three mountain districts that run along the Great Rift Valley.
[30] "… an evolutionary perspective indicates that we did not evolve to run long distances at fast speeds on a regular basis.
Various organs and systems in the human body are improved: bone mineral density is increased,[32] and cholesterol is lowered.
Older male runners (45-55) who run more than 40 miles (64 kilometers) per week face reduced testosterone levels, although they are still in the normal range.
[38] Elite-level long-distance running is associated with a three to seven times higher risk of the knee osteoarthritis later in life compared to non-runners.
Memory foam and similar shoe inserts may be comfortable, but they can make foot muscles weaker in the long term.
[40] Running shoes with special features,[41] or lack thereof in the case of minimalist designs,[42] do not prevent injury.
[48] Depending on the rules and terrain, navigation sports such as foot orienteering and rogaining may contain periods of endurance running within the competition.
[citation needed] Variants of adventure racing may also combine navigational skills and endurance running in this manner.
The sport became professionalised as footmen were hired specifically on their athletic ability and began to devote their lives to training for gambling events.
The amateur sports movement in the late 19th century marginalised competitions based on the professional, gambling model.
The marathon is also the only road running event featured at the World Para Athletics Championships and the Summer Paralympics.
[51] Ekiden contests – which originated in Japan and remain common there – are a relay race variation on the marathon, in contrast to the typically individual sport of road running.
In contrast to the relatively flat courses in track and road races, cross country usually incorporates obstacles such as muddy sections, logs, and mounds of earth.
The sport gained popularity in British, then American schools in the 19th century and culminated in the creation of the first International Cross Country Championships in 1903.
[52] The annual World Athletics Cross Country Championships was inaugurated in 1973 and this remains the highest level of competition for the sport.
As a result, courses are often set in scenic locations and feature obstacles designed to give participants a sense of achievement.
