Drug resistance

Because the drug is so specific, any mutation in these molecules will interfere with or negate its destructive effect, resulting in antibiotic resistance.

[2] Furthermore, there is mounting concern over the abuse of antibiotics in the farming of livestock, which in the European Union alone accounts for three times the volume dispensed to humans – leading to development of super-resistant bacteria.

Without alternative strategies, the acquisition of drug resistance by pathogenic microorganisms looms as possibly one of the most significant public health threats facing humanity in the 21st century.

[6] Some of the best alternative sources to reduce the chance of antibiotic resistance are probiotics, prebiotics, dietary fibers, enzymes, organic acids, phytogenics.

[10] Drug, toxin, or chemical resistance is a consequence of evolution and is a response to pressures imposed on any living organism.

[13] Malaria in 2012 has become a resurgent threat in South East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, and drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum are posing massive problems for health authorities.

Examples of drug-resistant strains are to be found in microorganisms[17] such as bacteria and viruses, parasites both endo- and ecto-, plants, fungi, arthropods,[18][19] mammals,[20] birds,[21] reptiles,[22] fish, and amphibians.

[22] In the domestic environment, drug-resistant strains of organism may arise from seemingly safe activities such as the use of bleach,[23] tooth-brushing and mouthwashing,[24] the use of antibiotics, disinfectants and detergents, shampoos, and soaps, particularly antibacterial soaps,[25][26] hand-washing,[27] surface sprays, application of deodorants, sunblocks and any cosmetic or health-care product, insecticides, and dips.

[29] The four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are:[30][31] [32] [33] Beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin and cephalosporin) Chloramphenicol Binds to penicillin-binding proteins, Inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis Bind to 50S ribosome subunit, inhibiting formation of peptide bonds Plasmid encode beta-lactamase, which open the beta-lactam ring, inactivating it.

[34] Drug resistance has a high metabolic price in pathogens[34] for which this concept is relevant (bacteria,[35] endoparasites, and tumor cells.)

However, in the presence of antibiotics, the survival advantage conferred off-sets the high metabolic cost and allows resistant strains to proliferate.