[2] The main causes of obstructed labour include a large or abnormally positioned baby, a small pelvis, and problems with the birth canal.

[2] Risk factors for a small pelvis include malnutrition and a lack of exposure to sunlight causing vitamin D deficiency.

[1] Problems with the birth canal include a narrow vagina and perineum which may be due to female genital mutilation or tumors.

[7] The treatment of obstructed labour may require cesarean section or vacuum extraction with possible surgical opening of the symphysis pubis.

[1] The main causes of obstructed labour include a large or abnormally positioned baby, a small pelvis, and problems with the birth canal.

Risk factors for a small pelvis include malnutrition and a lack of exposure to sunlight causing vitamin D deficiency.

[11] Problems with the birth canal include a narrow vagina and perineum which may be due to female genital mutilation or tumors.

Obstructed labor is more common in humans than any other species and continues to be a main cause of birth complications today.

[12] Modern humans have morphologically evolved to survive as bipeds, however, bipedalism has resulted in skeletal changes that have consequently narrowed the pelvis and the birth canal.

[13] The combination of increased brain size and changes in pelvic structure are the major contributors of obstructed labor in modern humans.

[16] Shrinking of upper extremities and curvature of the spine have also affected the way modern humans give birth.

Quadruped apes have longer upper limbs that allow them to reach down and pull their fetus out of the birth canal unassisted.

[15] Modern human's shorter upper extremities and evolution of bipedal locomotion may have placed a premium on assistance during labor.

[18] The treatment of obstructed labour may require cesarean section or vacuum extraction with possible surgical opening of the symphysis pubis.

This procedure can be completed more rapidly than Caesarean sections and does not require anesthesia, making it a more accessible option in places with less advanced medical technology.

[citation needed] Most brachycephalic dogs require caesarean sections to decrease risk of mortality for both the bitch and puppies.