are generally considered to be short-lived, tropical short-day C4 plants that possess high vitality in humid conditions.

[5] Japanese barnyard millet, along with the adzuki bean, holds a unique place in Japan's cultural history.

These two crops are the only plants mentioned in Japan’s two oldest authentic texts, the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, compiled in 712 and 720 AD, respectively.

Historical records and archaeological evidence further highlight the long-standing importance of barnyard millet in Japanese society.

[2] The powerful Fujiwara family had three members mummified and laid in coffins in the Golden Hall of Chusonji, a Buddhist temple in Hiraizumi, Iwate Prefecture.

In the coffin of Hidehira, one of the family members, 1.8 liters of unhulled barnyard millet grains were found scattered at its base, possibly used as pillow stuffing.

Furthermore, family documents of the Nanbu feudal lords list varietal names of 29 early, 29 medium, and 44 late-maturing types of Japanese barnyard millet, reflecting its agricultural diversity and importance.

[2] Barnyard millet was a staple food crop in Japan until the 1860s, prized for its adaptability to unfavorable climates and soil conditions.

However, the introduction of cold-resistant rice varieties in later years, particularly after advancements highlighted by researchers such as Yabun (1987), led to a decline in its cultivation.

This reduction is primarily attributed to the development of superior rice varieties, which gradually replaced millet as a staple crop.

Despite its diminished role today, Japanese barnyard millet remains an important symbol of resilience and adaptability in the country’s agricultural history.

[2] Echinochloa esculenta is a warm season quick growing grass which can be cut for hay within 50 days of planting.

Heavy infestations of smuts were found to lead to a reduction in grain yield and quality when it occurs during head formation.

[2] Currently, Japanese millet is commonly used as bird feed in Japan and often grown as forage in the United States.