The science of epidemiology has matured significantly from the times of Hippocrates, Semmelweis and John Snow.
The techniques for gathering and analyzing epidemiological data vary depending on the type of disease being monitored but each study will have overarching similarities.
[citation needed] Epidemiological (and other observational) studies typically highlight associations between exposures and outcomes, rather than causation.
While some consider this a limitation of observational research, epidemiological models of causation (e.g. Bradford Hill criteria)[7] contend that an entire body of evidence is needed before determining if an association is truly causal.
For example, the link between cigarette smoke and lung cancer was uncovered largely through observational research; however research ethics would certainly prohibit conducting a randomized trial of cigarette smoking once it had already been identified as a potential health threat.