Although several causes have been put forward as possibly responsible for the conflict, the most widely accepted is that derived from the administrative and fiscal changes produced by the transformation of the territory into two provinces.

However, although the latter achieved some victories, such as at the Battle of Turda,[8] where Quintus Minucius even managed to capture the Hispanic general Besadino,[9] they also failed to fully resolve the situation.

Cato established an alliance with Bilistages,[11] king of the Ilergetes, and had also the support of Publius Manlius, newly appointed praetor of Hispania Citerior and sent as assistant consul.

[15] After Cato's great victory in this decisive battle, which had decimated the Hispanic forces, the Citerior province fell back under Roman control.

[16] On the other hand, the Ulterior province remained uncontrolled, and the consul had to head towards Turdetania to support the praetors Publius Manlius and Appius Claudius Nero.

The Carthaginian generals Magon Barca and Hasdrubal Gisco had retreated towards Gades, which allowed Scipio Africanus to take over the entire southern Iberian Peninsula.

Scipio then crossed into Africa to hold a meeting with the Numidian king Syphax,[23] whom he had previously encountered in Hispania, with the intention of forging an alliance.

Shortly thereafter, Scipio became seriously ill and seizing the opportunity, 8000 Roman soldiers, who were dissatisfied at having received lower pay than usual, and, moreover, lacked authorization to plunder enemy towns, revolted and started a mutiny; this mutiny was the perfect occasion seized by the Ilergetes and other Iberian peoples to revolt, led by the leaders Indibilis (of the Ilergetes) and Mandonius (of the Ausetani), a rebellion directed above all against the proconsuls Lucius Cornelius Lentulus[24] and Lucius Manlius Acidinus.

Magon Barca[26] and Hasdrubal Gisco left Gades with all their ships and troops to go to the Italian Peninsula in support of Hannibal, and after the departure of these forces, Rome was master of all southern Hispania.

Other causes for the uprising have been proposed, however, such as the death of Indibilis and Mandonius at the hands of the Romans;[29] or the most widely accepted, the high tributes that the Hispaniids had to pay to Rome, especially after the transformation of the territory into two provinces.

The transformation of the territory into two provinces caused important administrative and fiscal changes,[4] and the imposition of the stipendium was not accepted by the local tribes, so that in 197 BC, just after the Second Macedonian War was over, a great revolt broke out throughout the conquered area in Hispania because of the republican spoliation.

[46] Elected consul in 195 BC together with his friend Lucius Valerius Flaccus[47] it fell to Marcus Porcius Cato, the Elder by lot to take charge of Hispania Citerior.

[49] The consul Marcus Porcius Cato, who had been unable to prevent the annulment of the Oppian Law,[3] embarked with his troops for Hispania to take charge of the Citerior province with Publius Manlius as assistant, leaving the Ulterior to Appius Claudius.

[8] Iliturgi was occupied by the Romans, and this victory earned Marcus Helvius Blasion an ovatio granted by the senate in 195 BC; however, he was ineligible for the triumphus, having fought in a province that belonged to another praetor.

[52][35][53] Cato embarked his army on 25 ships, 5 of them with allied troops, departed from Portus Lunae (Luni, Italy)[54] and skirted the Gulf of Leon to reach Hispania, the northern part of the Citerior province.

Most (...) were not conceived to repel formal sieges that would never come, not only because the fortifications exercised an effective military deterrent role but because the attacker would have no interest in besieging the city.

Cato sacked the city and then fought against the Indians and put down the resistance of the Iberian garrison located on Puig Rom,[59] or Rhode acropolis,[60] surely the Citadel of Roses.

[74] At this time he visited the camp Marcus Helvius,[note 2] making a stop on his return journey to Rome, protected by 6000 soldiers on loan from the praetor Appius Claudius, after having won at Iliturgi.

[13] The revolted army besieging Emporion, of about 40 000[33][77] men, was partially disbanded in the harvest season,[78] moment taken advantage of by Marcus Porcius Cato to attack the camp.

It is necessary to recover it with your arms and your courage and to force this people, who are more reckless for rebellion than constant for resistance, to accept again the yoke, which has been removed.During the night, Cato took the most advantageous position,[81] keeping a legion in reserve, and placing the cavalry (equites) at the ends of the line and the infantry in the center;[82] typical disposition of a "maniple army" of the Republican era.

They carried a wooden shield, reinforced with iron, a sword called gladius and two throwing spears known as pila (a heavy pilum and a smaller javelin).

Dion Cassius, Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, and Titus Livius in particular make explicit reference to the "Hispanic swords", to which they attribute an unsurpassed quality: These swords cut through anything, and the quality of their iron is so extraordinary that there is no shield, helmet or bone that can resist them.Early in the morning Cato the Elder sent three cohorts to the fence of the Iberian camp, which caused surprise in the Hispanics, who did not expect an attack from behind.

[89] The battle was very evenly matched while fought with throwing weapons; on the right flank the Iberians dominated, while on the left and in the center the Romans were stronger, who also awaited the arrival of two reinforcing cohorts.

[96] With the victory at Emporion Marcus Porcius Cato had achieved the pacification of all Hispania Citerior; all the way to Tarraco all the cities were surrendering to him, and they were handing over to him the Romans they held as prisoners.

[101][103][104][105][106][107][108] The praetors Appius Claudius Nero and Publius Manlius were in Turdetania, waging war against the Turdetani themselves and against the Celtiberians mercenaries they had hired, achieving some victories.

[110] After a triumphant campaign, Cato led his troops to Sierra Morena, Turdetania, in aid of the praetores Publius Manlius and Appius Claudius,[111][112] to the area where the Turdetani had their mines.

[130][131] Subsequently the consul Marcus Porcius Cato headed back towards the Citerior province, towards the territory of the Bergistani,[132] who had rebelled again and were resisting in the fortress of castrum Bergium.

[135][136][137] Once he had reduced the Hispanic insurgents settled in the territory located between the Iberus River and the Pyrenees, Cato the Elder turned his attention to the administration of the province.

[156][152][125] The victory in the war of Hispania was a great boost to the career of Marcus Porcius Cato, as it allowed him to reach the military heights of his opponents.

[196] Titus Livius' treatment of the campaign is the most extensive and exhaustive of those preserved, and is the one that serves as the main reference for setting up the story;[197] it should be noted in this regard that several episodes of the contest are contained only in his work, such as the description of Emporion.