Throughout the history of Puerto Rico, its inhabitants have initiated several movements to gain independence for the island, first from the Spanish Empire between 1493 and 1898 and since then from the United States.

Since the beginning of the 19th century, organizations advocating independence in Puerto Rico have attempted both peaceful political means as well as violent revolutionary actions to achieve its objectives.

The declaration of independence of Puerto Rico occurred on September 23, 1868 during the Grito de Lares revolt against Spanish rule.

A fourth referendum was held on November 6, 2012, with 54% voting to change Puerto Rico's status but the federal government took no action to do so.

[3][4] Some Modern Puerto Rican independence movements have claimed historic connection to the 16th century and the Taíno rebellion of 1511 led by Agüeybaná II.

[5] First explorer and governor of Puerto Rico, Juan Ponce de León, led the Spaniards in a series of offensives that culminated in the Battle of Yagüecas.

Betances wrote several Proclamas, or statements attacking the exploitation of the Puerto Ricans by the Spanish colonial system, and called for immediate insurrection.

But in Madrid, Eugenio María de Hostos and other prominent Puerto Ricans were successful in interceding, and the national government ordered a general amnesty and release of all the prisoners.

[22][23] The newfound autonomy was short-lived, as Puerto Rico was invaded, occupied, and annexed by the United States during the Spanish-American War in 1898.

A number of leaders, including a well-known intellectual and legislator called José de Diego, sought independence from the United States via political accommodation.

On June 5, 1900, President William McKinley named De Diego, together with Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, José Celso Barbosa, Manuel Camuñas, and Andrés Crosas to an Executive Cabinet under U.S.-appointed Governor Charles H. Allen.

"[27] The newly created Puerto Rico Union Party advocated allowing voters to choose among non-colonial options, including annexation, an independent protectorate, and full autonomy.

That same year, Scott Colón, Zeno Gandía, Matienzo Cintrón, and Luis Lloréns Torres wrote a manifesto for independence.

[31] Several years after leaving office, in 1913 Charles H. Allen, the first civilian U.S. governor of Puerto Rico, succeeded to the presidency of the American Sugar Refining Company after serving as treasurer.

[29][31] American professor and activist Noam Chomsky argued in the late 20th century that, after 1898 "Puerto Rico was turned into a plantation for U.S. agribusiness, later an export platform for taxpayer-subsidized U.S. corporations, and the site of major U.S. military bases and petroleum refineries.

[38] Muñoz Marín and his followers, who included Felisa Rincón de Gautier and Ernesto Ramos Antonini, held an assembly in the town of Arecibo to found the Partido Liberal, Neto, Auténtico y Completo (Clear, Authentic and Complete Liberal Party), later named the People's Democratic Party (PPD for Spanish name).

During the 1930s and 1940s, Nationalist partisans/guerrilleros took part in violent incidents: The Puerto Rican independence movement took new measures after the Free Associate State was authorized.

[47] In the 1954 United States Capitol shooting incident, four nationalists opened fire on US Representatives during a debate on the floor of the US Congress, wounding five men, one seriously.

[53] A number of social groups, political parties, and individuals worldwide have supported the concept of Puerto Rican independence.

"[61] Other individuals and groups supporting Puerto Rican independence have included: poet Martín Espada, professor and writer Jason Ferreira, the group Calle 13, FALN leader Oscar López Rivera, Roberto Barreto, a member of Organizacion Socialista Internacional; Puerto Rican nationalist Carlos Alberto Torres, and US Representative Luis Gutiérrez.

951, enacted March 2, 1917) reduced political opposition in the island, as they vested the U.S. Congress with authority and veto power over any legislation or referendum initiated by Puerto Rico.

In the mid-century, the "Cointelpro program" was a project conducted by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to surveil, infiltrate, discredit, and disrupt domestic political organizations which it classified as suspect or subversive.

Historians and critics found that the massive surveillance apparatus was directed primarily against Puerto Rico's independence movement.

[72] In the 21st century, a majority of Independentistas seek to achieve independence either through peaceful political means or violent revolutionary actions.

[76][77][78] Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico.

More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self-determination and independence: "allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty".

Journalist Roque Planas, co-founder of the Latin American News Dispatch, wrote as an editor in HuffPost: the referendum consisted of two questions.

[83] The Washington Post reported in December 2013 that, since Puerto Ricans became US citizens in 1917, they have "been divided over their relationship with the mainland" on whether to become a US state, become independent, or a self-governing territory under US control.

[85] The White House Task Force on Puerto Rico offers the following specifics: "Free Association is a type of independence.

[89] At approximately the same time as the referendum, Puerto Rico's legislators voted on a bill that allows the Governor to draft a state constitution and hold elections to choose senators and representatives to the federal Congress.