Inoculation theory
[1][2] The theory uses medical inoculation as its explanatory analogy but instead of applying it to disease, it is used to discuss attitudes and other positions, like opinions, values, and beliefs.
[3] Inoculation theory functions to confer resistance of counter-attitudinal influences from such sources as the media, advertising, interpersonal communication, and peer pressure.
The theory posits that weak counterarguments generate resistance within the receiver, enabling them to maintain their beliefs in the face of a future, stronger challenge.
The arguments that are presented in an inoculation message must be strong enough to initiate motivation to maintain current attitudes and beliefs, but weak enough that the receiver will be able to refute the counterargument.
[14] For example, Tweets containing native advertising disclosures – a type of inoculation message – were more likely to include negative commentary which is a sign of resistance to influence consistent with PIT.
Early studies limited testing of inoculation theory to cultural truisms, or beliefs accepted without consideration (e.g., people should brush their teeth daily).
[12] Studies of inoculation theory currently target less popular or common attitudes, such as whether one should buy a Mac or a Windows-based PC computer or if one should support gay marriage.
Pre-bunking (or prebunking) is a form of Inoculation theory that aims to combat various kinds of manipulation and misinformation spread around the web.
[20] Inoculation theory explains how attitudes, beliefs, or opinions (sometimes referred to generically as "a position") can be made more resistant to future challenges.
[25][26][27] The purpose is to enhance or boost resistance outcomes for the two key components of McGuire's inoculation theory: threat and refutational preemption.
[28] The main focus is to determine how to improve the effectiveness of the inoculation process by evaluating and generating reactance to a threatened freedom by manipulating explicit and implicit language and its intensity.
The participants in the Miller et al. study were college students, that is emerging adults, who display high reactance to persuasive appeals.
Miller et al. also consider refutational preemption as motivation for producing initial counterarguments and provocation of dissension when contemplating the attack message.
Previously, Miller, et al. (2007)[32] utilizes Brehm's psychological reactance theory[27] to avoid or eliminate source derogation and message rejection.
This idea also ties into the emerging adult population of the above study and its affirmation that individuals in transitional stages will assert their threatened behavior freedoms[30][29][32][28] Miller et al. (2007)[32] sought to determine how effective explicit and implicit language is at mitigating reactance.
[11] Climate change denialism is a particular problem in that its global nature and lengthy timeframe is uniquely difficult for the individual mind to grasp, as the human brain has evolved to deal with short-term and immediate dangers.
Much of the research shows that targeting at a young age can help them resist peer pressure in high school or college.
An important example of inoculation theory usage is protecting young adolescents against influences of peer pressure, which can lead to smoking, underage drinking, and other harmful behaviors[41] Godbold and Pfau (2000) used sixth graders from two different schools and applied inoculation theory as a defense against peer pressure to drinking alcohol.
The results showed that a combination of the four methods of training was effective in combating persuasion to drink and drive or get into a vehicle with a drunk driver.
[43] Compton, Jackson and Dimmock (2016)[7] discuss important future research, such as preparing new mothers for overcoming their health concerns (e.g., about breastfeeding, sleep deprivation and post-partum depression).
[45] The truth adverts aimed to show young people that smoking was unhealthy, and to expose the manipulative tactics of tobacco companies.
Some research areas include present-day issues (for example, inoculation-based strategies for addiction intervention to assist sober individuals from relapsing), as well as promoting healthy eating habits, exercising, breastfeeding and creating positive attitude towards mammograms.
Dimmock et al. (2016) studied how inoculation messages can be used to increase participants' reported enjoyment and interest in physical exercise.
The parents were asked if they would get their children the vaccine for this fictitious disease, and the results they gathered displayed Inoculation theory in action.
The double page advertisement read, "If every motorist used Chevron with F-310 for 2000 miles, air pollutants would be reduced by thousands of tons in a single day.
Inoculation theory research in advertising and marketing has mainly focused on promoting healthy lifestyles with the help of a product or for a specific company's goal.
[59] Compton and Pfau (2004) extended inoculation theory into the realm of credit card marketing targeting college students.
Deception detection research has largely yielded little predictable support for nonverbal cues, and rather indicates that most liars are revealed through verbal content inconsistencies.
[61] Breen and Matusitz (2009) suggest a method through which inoculation theory can be used to prevent pack journalism, a practice in which a large quantity of journalists and news outlets swarm a person, place, thing, or idea in a way that is distressing and harmful.
[66] To prevent the effects from wearing off, Maertens et al. suggest the implementation of Inoculation Theory "booster shots" in the form of repeated exposure to misinformation techniques.
