For instance, the word zato “sunny” tends to be nominalised through a singular noun phrase clitic:[8] In Longgu, certain orthographic conventions can be used.
[13] Four numbers are distinguished in pronominal forms: singular, dual, paucal, and plural, and non-singular first person pronouns are either inclusive (INCL) or exclusive (EXCL).
[13] Independent pronouns have three functions: gira3PLara3PLnana'istay homenaPERFgira ara nana'i na3PL 3PL {stay home} PERF"They stayed home"[13]lumahouseami-gi1PL.EX-PLluma ami-gihouse 1PL.EX-PL"Our houses"[19]gira3PLtolo-gibush-PLara3PLili-atell-3SG'ani-aINSTR-3SG"rau"lineniLIGbolo"pig"gira tolo-gi ara ili-a 'ani-a "rau ni bolo"3PL bush-PL 3PL tell-3SG INSTR-3SG "line LIG pig""Those bush (people) call it 'line of the pig'"[14]The subject pronoun is also the first constituent of a verb phrase, and is used to cross-reference the number and person of the subject noun phrase.
Possessive suffixes have five functions: maa-naeye-3SGwaiwatermaa-na waieye-3SG water"mouth/ eye of the river"[23]waiwatere3SG'onilocatedgege-nabeside-3SGkomu-ivillage-SGwai e 'oni gege-na komu-iwater 3SG located beside-3SG village-SG"The river is located/ runs next to the village"[15]gale-nachild-3SGUlunatenaNAMEgale-na Ulunatenachild-3SG NAME"Ulumatena's child"[23]toloNAMEe3SGtaliwantto'iworkta-naLOC-3SGhaka-iship-SGtolo e tali to'i ta-na haka-iNAME 3SG want work LOC-3SG ship-SG"Tolo wants to work on a ship"[15]mamaa-nawatch-3SGvonu-iturtle-SGmamaa-na vonu-iwatch-3SG turtle-SG"watch the turtle"[15]Object suffixes are attached to transitive verbs to cross-reference person and number of the object pronoun phrase argument in transitive clauses.
[26] nau1SGmolaonlyguIRRlagova'i-ni-raCOMIT-TRS-3PLvuagrandparentngaia-gi3SG-PLivu'i-ni-ahoe-TRS-3SGsavitaro topgolu-gi1PAU.IN-PLnau mola gu la va'i-ni-ra vua ngaia-gi ivu'i-ni-a savi golu-gi1SG only IRR go COMIT-TRS-3PL grandparent 3SG-PL hoe-TRS-3SG {taro top} 1PAU.IN-PL"Only I should go with his grandparents, hoeing our taro tops"[26]The 3rd person plural inanimate suffix -i cross references dual, paucal, or plural inanimate objects which are highly individuated.
[26] In example 17, the head noun is quantified, and food objects are also cross-referenced by the 3rd person plural inanimate suffix.
[30] Inalienable possessive constructions express a number of different types of relations and they can be split into several sub-categories: For example: e3SGseNEGbweinabigta’eINTENStatala-nafootprint-3SGmwela-nechild-DEIe se bweina ta’e tatala-na mwela-ne3SG NEG big INTENS footprint-3SG child-DEI“This child’s footprint isn’t really big”susu-nabreast milk-3SGtiamotherngaia3SGsusu-na tia ngaia{breast milk}-3SG mother 3SG“her mother’s breast milk”Possessive constructions can also be recursive, meaning that up to three possessive noun phrases may be in the one sentence.
Not strictly kinship terms, boro “old man” and mwaro “old woman” can formulate a semi-verbal predicate.
[32] su’e-aask-3SGburunga-muspouse-2SGgeOBLili-atell-3SGtiamotherngaia3SGsu’e-a burunga-mu ge ili-a tia ngaiaask-3SG spouse-2SG OBL tell-3SG mother 3SG“ask your spouse to tell of her mother”Most body part terms form the head of inalienable possessive constructions: ^may denote either the fluid or the body part.
[33] Note: when the body parts become separated from the whole they are thus treated as alienable (see Alienable: kinship) m–amoluCONJ-2PAUgeOBLzualastandgaANT‘ani-aINSTR-3SGe3SGmaedeadnaPERFa’ae-miuleg-2PLm–amolu ge zuala ga ‘ani-a e mae na a’ae-miuCONJ-2PAU OBL stand ANT INSTR-3SG 3SG dead PERF leg-2PL“you (few) must stand for a while because your legs are stiff (lit.
dead) now”Local (denoting location) nouns can act as the head of an inalienable possessive construction but not an alienable.
giago firstngaia3SGboo-i–napig-SG-DEIisitavago outsideubu-nainside-3SGluma–i–nahouse-SG-DEIgia ngaia boo-i–na isitava ubu-na luma–i–na{go first} 3SG pig-SG-DEI {go outside} inside-3SG house-SG-DEI“that pig went ahead outside from inside that house”m–eCONJ-3SGgale,baby,angocrawlmaihithergege-darua–i–nabeside-3DU-SG-DEIm–e gale, ango mai gege-darua–i–naCONJ-3SG baby, crawl hither beside-3DU-SG-DEI“and it was a baby [snake], [lit] crawled beside them”Places within the house are also place nouns and as such can form the head of inalienable possession: nu1SGkue-kue–kuesqueal-REDUP-REDUPlae–laego-REDUPmolajustubuinsideniLIGmasu’u-gi-nabush-PL-DEImaCONJbwarakumo-gi-i-na,back of house-1SG-SG-DEI,maCONJmaa–luma–gu-i-naeye-house-1SG-SG-DEI.nu kue-kue–kue lae–lae mola ubu ni masu’u-gi-na ma bwarakumo-gi-i-na, ma maa–luma–gu-i-na1SG squeal-REDUP-REDUP go-REDUP just inside LIG bush-PL-DEI CONJ {back of house}-1SG-SG-DEI, CONJ eye-house-1SG-SG-DEI.“I squealed (while) just walking in the bush (lit.
those bushes) and at the back of my house and my door”There are a select few common nouns which show personal possession in inalienable constructions but not alienable: This limited group suggests that there is a semantic basis, that all these items are either worn or slept in.
The treatment of these nouns (of personal decoration) as inalienable is consistent even when the possessor is not wearing them, in contrast to ‘clothes’.
: zata-naname-3SGteoneuta’a–iman-SGaARTSibilokoNAMEzata-na te uta’a–i a Sibilokoname-3SG one man-SG ART NAME“the name of one man was Sibiloko”e3SGseNEGbweinabigta’eINTENStatala–nafootprint-3SGmwela-nechild-DEIe se bweina ta’e tatala–na mwela-ne3SG NEG big INTENS footprint-3SG child-DEI“this child’s footprint isn’t really big”Parts/sections of man-made things, natural things such as rivers and hils, and patterns like dances are treated as inalienably possessed.
These include: golu1PAU.INgeOBLnau-nau-aREDUP-try-3SGawadehowuri-uri-nastep-REDUP-3SGavaidancegolu ge nau-nau-a awade uri-uri-na avai1PAU.IN OBL REDUP-try-3SG how step-REDUP-3SG dance“we must practice how to do the dance steps”Inalienable possessive pronouns are divided into two categories: For both sets a suffix a is attached to the 1st and 2nd person singular possessive suffixes.
Nouns that can take on an alienable construction include such categories as animals, foods, personal items, villages and some kinship terms.
Longgu development of alienable constructions where the possessor is expressed by a disjunctive pronoun (like nau) is non-standard to the POC.
These are: o2SGsusu-abreast feed-3SGvuagrandchildnau,1SG,tike,daughter,moCONJgoOBLna’i-aleave-3SGwa-naDAT-3SGmamafatherngaia3SGo susu-a vua nau, tike, mo go na’i-a wa-na mama ngaia2SG {breast feed}-3SG grandchild 1SG, daughter, CONJ OBL leave-3SG DAT-3SG father 3SG“you breast feed my grandchild, daughter, and you must leave him for his father”All of these kinship terms, excluding tia ngaia ‘his/her mother, mother’s sister’, represent reciprocal relationships.
In POC, generally terms for mother and father are not included in inalienable possessive constructs, in this Longgu differs.
Longgu also deviates from standard POC in that not all reciprocal kinship terms are included in inalienable possessive constructions.
e3SGade-atake-3SGtuapasaspearngaia-i3SG-SGe ade-a tuapasa ngaia-i3SG take-3SG spear 3SG-SG“he took his spear”m–araCONJ-3PLlahouthenade–itake-3PL.INnaPERFiviclothesgira–gi3PL-PLvata’uawaym–araCONJ-3PLna’i–iput-3PL.INubu–nainside-3PLeibasketgira–gi3PL-PLm–ara lahou ade–i na ivi gira–gi vata’u m–ara na’i–i ubu–na ei gira–giCONJ-3PL then take-3PL.IN PERF clothes 3PL-PL away CONJ-3PL put-3PL.IN inside-3PL basket 3PL-PL“and then they took off their clothes and they put them into their baskets”m-aruaCONJ-3DUkaolook backmaihitherm–aruaCONJ-3DUbere–ngi–asee-TRS-3SG‘uaCONTkomuvillagegirua–i3DU-SGm-arua kao mai m–arua bere–ngi–a ‘ua komu girua–iCONJ-3DU {look back} hither CONJ-3DU see-TRS-3SG CONT village 3DU-SG“and they both looked back and they both still saw their village”As noted above, possessive pronouns may be used in inalienable constructions to talk about food that is being eaten/intended to be eaten by the possessor.
The inalienable possessive construction of body part terms is the unmarked variety, however when these become detached/dismembered they are treated as alienable.
Inalienable constructions of ‘story’, ‘path’, ‘egg’, ‘picture’ express that the possessor is the source of the possessum.
Inalienable)”‘inonipersonara3PLseNEGlae–gi–nago-PL-DEIara3PLtoro–vahini–apush-TRS-3SGvutomwetawaoceaniola–da–icanoe-3PL-SG‘inoni ara se lae–gi–na ara toro–vahini–a vu mwetawa iola–da–iperson 3PL NEG go-PL-DEI 3PL push-TRS-3SG to ocean canoe-3PL-SG“the people who are not going push their canoe out to sea”iolacanoengaia3SGTeddyNAMEiola ngaia Teddycanoe 3SG NAME“Teddy’s canoe”m-eCONJ-3SGlahouthenade-atake-3SGnaPERFivi-naclothes-3SGsi-na-iyounger sibling-3SG-SGm-e lahou ade-a na ivi-na si-na-iCONJ-3SG then take-3SG PERF clothes-3SG {younger sibling}-3SG-SG“and then she took her younger sibling’s (sister’s) clothes”iviclothesngaia3SGAraNAMEivi ngaia Araclothes 3SG NAME“Ara’s clothes”Not strictly a possessive construction, the associative ni construction is formed whereby the morpheme –ni is used to join two nouns into a possessive noun phrase.
[42] Longgu, however, maintains only a three-way distinction, with the differentiation between the two non-specific possessor constructions being lost and ni now used for both.
The negative particle occurs after the subject pronoun in a verb phrase expressing realis mood, and after the irrealis particle ho (5) in a verb phrase (negative predicate) which expresses irrealis mood.
A semi-verbal negative existential clause consists of the quantifier bwala “none, not, no” and a noun as predicate head.
[49] nau-i1SG-SGnaPERFbwalanotiamothernau1SGm-eCONJ-3SGbwalanomamafathernau1SGnau-i na bwala tia nau m-e bwala mama nau1SG-SG PERF no mother 1SG CONJ-3SG no father 1SGme, I have no mother and no father (my mother does not exist and my father does not exist)[50]bwalanovonuturtlenaPERFubu-nainside-3SGpilu-ifence-SGbwala vonu na ubu-na pilu-ino turtle PERF inside-3SG fence-SGthere was no turtle inside the fence[50]A nominal negative existential clause consists of one noun phrase – the predicate.
to’iworksodonothingto’i sodowork nothingwork for nothing[51]‘inonipersonsodonothing‘inoni sodoperson nothinggood-for-nothing person[52]The intensifier tahou modifies only verbs.