Lost-wax casting

The oldest known examples of this technique are approximately 6,500 years old (4550–4450 BC) and attributed to gold artefacts found at Bulgaria's Varna Necropolis.

Then a metal flask, which resembles a short length of steel pipe that ranges roughly from 3.5 to 15 centimeters tall and wide, is put over the sprue base and the waxes.

Careful attention to tooth preparation, impression taking and laboratory technique are required to make this type of restoration a success.

Cast gold knucklebones, beads, and bracelets, found in graves at Bulgaria's Varna Necropolis, have been dated to approximately 6500 years BP.

[2] Some of the oldest known examples of the lost-wax technique are the objects discovered in the Nahal Mishmar hoard in southern Land of Israel, and which belong to the Chalcolithic period (4500–3500 BC).

[13] Much later examples from northeastern Mesopotamia/Anatolia include the Great Tumulus at Gordion (late 8th century BC), as well as other types of Urartian cauldron attachments.

[15] A further two bronze images of Parsvanatha and a small hollow-cast bull came from Sahribahlol, Gandhara, and a standing Tirthankara (2nd~3rd century CE ) from Chausa in Bihar should be mentioned here as well.

[15] Gupta and post-Gupta period bronze figures have been recovered from the following sites: Saranath, Mirpur-Khas (in Pakistan), Sirpur (District of Raipur), Balaighat (near Mahasthan now in Bangladesh), Akota (near Vadodara, Gujarat), Vasantagadh, Chhatarhi, Barmer and Chambi (in Rajesthan).

[19] Some of the bangles from Ban Na Di revealed a dark grey substance between the central clay core and the metal, which on analysis was identified as an unrefined form of insect wax.

[7] The sites exhibiting artifacts made by the lost-mould process in Vietnam, such as the Dong Son drums, come from the Dong Son, and Phung Nguyen cultures,[7] such as one sickle and the figure of a seated individual from Go Mun (near Phung Nguyen, the Bac Bo Region), dating to the Go Mun phase (end of the General B period, up until the 7th century BC).

[20] The Egyptians were practicing cire perdue from the mid 3rd millennium BC, shown by Early Dynastic bracelets and gold jewellery.

[24] Hollow castings become more detailed and continue into the Eighteenth Dynasty, shown by the black bronze kneeling figure of Tutankhamun (Museum of the University of Pennsylvania).

Cire Perdue is used in mass-production during the Late Period to Graeco-Roman times when figures of deities were cast for personal devotion and votive temple offerings.

[27] Etruscan examples, such as the bronze anthropomorphic handle from the Bocchi collection (National Archaeological Museum of Adria), dating back to the 6th to 5th centuries BC, were made by cire perdue.

[29] Geometric bronzes such as the four copper horses of San Marco (Venice, probably 2nd century) are other prime examples of statues cast in many parts.

Examples of works made using the lost-wax casting process in Ancient Greece largely are unavailable due to the common practice in later periods of melting down pieces to reuse their materials.

The casting method to make bronzes till the early phase of Eastern Zhou (770-256 BCE) was almost invariably section-mold process.

[36] Starting from around 600 BCE, there was an unmistakable rise of lost-wax casting in the central plains of China, first witnessed in the Chu cultural sphere.

[37] Further investigations have revealed this not to be the case as it is clear that the piece-mould casting method was the principal technique used to manufacture bronze vessels in China.

[39][40] The intricate Gloucester Candlestick (1104–1113 AD) was made as a single-piece wax model, then given a complex system of gates and vents before being invested in a mould.

[42] Two lost-wax moulds, one complete and one partially broken, were found in a shaft and chamber tomb in the vereda of Pueblo Tapado in the municipio of Montenegro (Department of Quindío), dated roughly to the pre-Columbian period.

Scenes on the early-5th century BC Berlin Foundry Cup depict the creation of bronze statuary working, probably by the indirect method of lost-wax casting.

The Shilpa Shastras, a text from the Gupta Period (c. 320–550 AD), contains detailed information about casting images in metal.

[15][16] The 12th century text Mānasollāsa, allegedly written by King Someshvara III of the Western Chalukya Empire, also provides detail about lost-wax and other casting processes.

[15][16] In a 16th-century treatise, the Uttarabhaga of the Śilparatna written by Srïkumāra, verses 32 to 52 of Chapter 2 ("Linga Lakshanam"), give detailed instructions on making a hollow casting.

[15][16] An early medieval writer Theophilus Presbyter, believed to be the Benedictine monk and metalworker Roger of Helmarshausen, wrote a treatise in the early-to-mid-12th century[52] that includes original work and copied information from other sources, such as the Mappae clavicula and Eraclius, De dolorous et artibus Romanorum.

In Chapters 86 and 87 Theophilus details how to divide the wax into differing ratios before moulding and casting to achieve accurately tuned small musical bells.

Illustration of stepwise bronze casting by the lost-wax method
On the left is an example of a rubber mould, often used in the lost-wax process, and on the right is the finished bronze sculpture.
A video illustrating the process used by the National Park Service to create bronze sculptures at the Saint-Gaudens National Historical Park in the United States
Lost-wax cast glass sculpture "Purple Reigns" by Carol Milne
Varna necropolis, grave offerings on exhibit at the Varna Museum
Replica of a bronze sceptre from the Nahal Mishmar hoard .
The Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro ; 2300-1750 BC
Making sculpture using a lost wax process at Bastar district , Chhattisgarh , India
Wax forms for casting bronze statues for a Tibetan monastery near Kullu , Himachal Pradesh , India
Detailed 9th century bronze of a coiled snake, cast by the lost wax method. Igbo-Ukwu , Nigeria
Sculpture from the Ife state using a lost-wax casting technique, Nigeria, late 11th-14th century.
Gold ibex figurine from the Late Cycladic period (17th century BC). About 10cm long with lost-wax cast feet and head and repoussé body, from an excavation on Santorini .
The Artemision Bronze ( c. 5th century BC ). Lost-wax cast Bronze sculpture. Height 209 cm. Depicts either Zeus or Poseidon . Found near Cape Artemision . [ 30 ]
Bronze ritual altar with extensive patterns. From the State of Chu in central China, before 552 BC
The Gloucester Candlestick , England, early 12th century, V&A Museum no. 7649-1861
The Berlin Foundry Cup, early 5th century BC