[4] Modern dictionaries, however, agree that it was in fact borrowed by Portuguese from the Malay menteri (in Jawi: منتري, [ˈməntəri]) which ultimately came from the Sanskrit mantri (Devanagari: मंत्री, meaning counselor or minister – etymologically linked to mantra).

[11] In the West, the term mandarin is associated with the concept of the scholar-official who immersed himself in poetry, literature, and Confucian learning in addition to performing civil service duties.

In modern English, mandarin is also used to refer to any (though usually a senior) civil servant, often in a satirical context,[12] particularly in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth countries.

Based on the examinations of imperial China, the gwageo first arose in Unified Silla, gained importance in Goryeo, and was the centrepiece of most education in the Joseon dynasty.

The tutelage provided at the hyanggyo, seowon, and Sungkyunkwan was aimed primarily at preparing students for the gwageo and their subsequent careers in government service.

Under Joseon law, the high office was closed to those who were not children of officials of the second full rank or higher (Yangban) unless the candidate had passed the gwageo.

The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) divided the bureaucracy into civil and military positions, both having nine grades or ranks, each subdivided into primary and secondary categories.