The most common form of memory disturbance in cases of severe injuries or perceived physical distress due to a traumatic event is post-traumatic stress disorder,[3] discussed in depth later in the article.
[4] A patient whose fornix was damaged bilaterally developed severe anterograde amnesia but no effect on any other forms of memory or cognition.
[6] These parts of the brain are most affected because they contribute to the feeling and actions associated with fear, clear thinking, decision making and memory.
[6] The Amygdala is known as the "fear center of the brain," and is thought to be activated and regulated in response to stressful situations marked with perceived heightened stimulation.
Included in executive function abilities are emotional regulation, impulse control, mental cognition, and working memory among many other abilities.The PFC is also in charge of modulating response from the Amygdala.
One study by Gilbertson et al. (2002), suggests that perhaps decrease hippocampal volume may be a pre-existing factor that may predispose people for the development of PTSD.
[6][8][10][11] An underactive or dysregulated Hippocampus has many clinical implications including in areas of neurogenesis, disturbances to organization of memory, and ability to impact other endocrine functions such as a stress-response.
[1][2] These memory difficulties in identifying, labeling, and completely processing the traumatic event can be targets for treatment through psychotherapy.
Initial consequences of strangulation could be loss of consciousness and mild brain injury, while long-term residual problems include neurological impairment.
These modalities include learning to address trauma memories by specifying triggers, re-conditioning flashbacks, and engaging in narrative restructuring.
Patients are required to describe trauma memories in great detail (e.g., imagery rescripting), which could lead to re-traumatization.
[30] In severe trauma patients, especially those with post-traumatic stress disorder, the medial prefrontal cortex is volumetrically smaller in size than normal and is hyporesponsive when performing cognitive tasks, which could be a cause of involuntary recollection (intrusive thoughts).
In those cases, the metabolism in some parts of the medial prefrontal cortex didn't activate as they were supposed to when compared to those of a healthy subject.
As with many areas of psychology, most of these effects are under constant review, trial, and dissent within the scientific world regarding the validity of each topic.
Despite purposefully repressing these memories, Freud believed they still affect the individual unconsciously and, in some cases, will be brought back into one's recollection.
[34] Maltreatment causes impairments or distortions in cognitive, emotional processes, neurobiology, and brain development which might affect memory.
Findings suggest that adults’ ability to recall from long-term memory instances of childhood maltreatment depends on numerous factors.
Factors include individual differences and development, the overall impact of the traumatic experience, and the modality interviewers use to assess adult childhood trauma.
In trauma patients, the intrusive thoughts are typically memories from traumatic experiences that come at unexpected and unwanted times.
[39] Chemically, this is because the emotional and physical stress caused by traumatic events creates an almost identical stimulation in the brain to the physiological condition that heightens memory retention.
[40] This reaction has been enforced by evolution as learning from high-stress environments is necessary in "fight or flight" decisions that characterize human survival.
[citation needed] It is common to see mild and subtle neurocognitive deficits in adults with PTSD across differing trauma types.
Neuropsychological assessments for verbal memory typically include learning a list of words or a story and then performing recall.
Research findings suggest this may be due to complications from PTSD symptoms,[45] which may result from reduced left hippocampal gray matter density.
These brain structures support cognitive constructs such as attentional switching, information processing speed, and working memory.
[50] Typically symptoms include avoidance of reminders of the traumatic event or mention thereof, irritability, trouble sleeping, emotional numbness and exaggerated reactions to surprises.
Stricker et al.[62](2017) furthered this idea through research that demonstrated higher rates of cognitive impairment (e.g., executive functioning, attention, working memory, and processing speed) in individuals diagnosed with PTSD, like service members or veterans.
Memory is a vital predictive factor in a positive response to cognitive behavioral therapy for individuals with a trauma history.
Some research supports EMDR and brief eclectic therapy as possible treatment modalities that can intercede verbal memory, processing speed, and executive functioning in individuals with PTSD symptoms.
For example, patients who exhibited a positive treatment response showed improved verbal memory and increased hippocampal volume.