[3] Despite being perceived as a fragile and progressively protective kingdom, Brunei managed to hold onto its lands under his rule, which stretched from Tanjong Datu in Sarawak to Kimanis in Sabah.

[4] His rise to power as the Sultan was disliked by most of the population of Brunei and ignored royal Bruneian tradition which led to the second civil war between him and his successor, Pengiran Muda Omar Ali Saifuddin.

Local accounts claim that this action was taken in retaliation for Si Merah's challenge concerning a hunting dog named "Commerce," which was supposed to represent his ambition to take territory from Brunei.

The Sultan replied with a forceful statement calling on foreign commerce to 'behave,' but Farquhar settled the dispute by directing Captain Spiers to report for disciplinary action to the British Government in Bengal.

[14] Muhammad Alam felt assured of his imminent rule upon receiving his father's approval, despite lacking the symbolic crown and Kris Si Naga that traditionally signify full Sultanate power.

In contrast to fifteen years earlier, when his father took power with the heir apparent still a minor, Pengiran Muda Omar Ali Saifuddin had matured into a capable young man widely recognised as suitable to ascend the throne.

Muhammad Alam's support base was largely confined to his commercial associates within Brunei, as his authoritarian tendencies deepened the rift between him and his subjects, fostering widespread hostility toward his reign.

[15] Pengiran Muda Omar Ali Saifuddien and his allies moved to Keingaran Island on 15 February 1826, potentially declaring themselves Sultans and constructing a defensive posture, about this time, out of concern for their safety.

This might be seen as Muhammad Alam used brutality and hostage-taking to intimidate followers of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II, so solidifying his image as the ruthless Raja Api.

The uprising against Muhammad Alam, headed by Pehin Dato Perdana Menteri Abdul Hak, was motivated by their conviction that Omar Ali Saifuddien had a legitimate claim to the throne.

[20] A chronology of the events surrounding Muhammad Alam's reign shows political unrest and succession conflicts in Brunei, which is necessary to determine whether or not they qualify as a civil war.

Important sources that provide light on internal unrest, factional battles, and challenges to legitimacy during this time include local chronicles and academic assessments by individuals such as Pehin Jamil.

[20] Muhammad Alam's brother Pengiran Muda Hashim, who took part in the abortive insurrection in the 1820s, said that his downfall marked the end of a stable, although rigorous, system of governance in Brunei.

[22] European sources, like the works of Stamford Raffles and Farquhar, support the native narratives and offer further viewpoints in spite of the possibility of hearsay and second-hand knowledge.

Muhammad Alam's harsh character, characterised by suspicion towards foreign envoys and a self-imposed role as the protector of Brunei and its royal court, is revealed by Annabel Teh Gallop's extensive study of British accounts during his father's reign.

[13] In addition to written records, Muhammad Alam is portrayed as a tyrant known as Raja Api or Sultan Marak Berapi in widely accepted traditional legend.

Noting that the folklore has components with the 'Silsilah Raja-Raja Brunei' and European narratives despite considerable changes over time, historians like as Pehin Jamil and Yura Halim have used these stories to back up their views about the period.

The mythological legend, which is abundant, describes him as possessing extraordinary powers, such as the ability to breathe fire when enraged and to fly in search of blood to gain invincibility.

Furthermore, the comparisons to mythical individuals such as Raja Bersiong underscore the significance of folklore in depicting him with otherworldly qualities, including flight and an appetite for human blood, which function as metaphoric accusations of his purported misuse of authority and severe rule.