[3] Techniques enabling greater feature precision exist, among them electron beam lithography and particle deposition, but are slower and more resource intensive by comparison.
Alternatively, processes such as molecular self-assembly can be utilized which provide an enhanced level of production speed and feature control.
[4] Among the few clinical applications is the functionalization of titanium implant surfaces with nanotopography, generated with submersion etching and sand blasting.
[6] Notable results include osteogenic induction in the absence of media components[7] as well as near-total cell alignment as seen in smooth muscle.
[8] The potential of topographical cues to fulfill roles otherwise requiring xeno-based media components offers high translatability to clinical applications, as regulation and cost related to animal-derived products constitutes a major roadblock in a number of cell-related technologies.