Nihilism
Scholars of nihilism may regard it as merely a label that has been applied to various separate philosophies,[7] or as a distinct historical concept arising out of nominalism, skepticism, and philosophical pessimism, as well as possibly out of Christianity itself.
[8] Contemporary understanding of the idea stems largely from the Nietzschean 'crisis of nihilism', from which derive the two central concepts: the destruction of higher values and the opposition to the affirmation of life.
[12] The term is sometimes used in association with anomie to explain the general mood of despair at a perceived pointlessness of existence or arbitrariness of human principles and social institutions.
[25] In the period surrounding the French Revolution, the term was also a pejorative for certain value-destructive trends of modernity, namely the negation of Christianity and European tradition in general.
[35] Religious scholars such as Altizer have stated that nihilism must necessarily be understood in relation to religion, and that the study of core elements of its character requires fundamentally theological consideration.
"[50] In his day, tabloids (like the Danish magazine Corsaren) and apostate Christianity were instruments of levelling and contributed to the "reflective apathetic age" of 19th-century Europe.
"[49][52] As we must overcome levelling,[53] Hubert Dreyfus and Jane Rubin argue that Kierkegaard's interest, "in an increasingly nihilistic age, is in how we can recover the sense that our lives are meaningful.
[56] Russian nihilism centered on the dissolution of existing values and ideals, incorporating theories of hard determinism, atheism, materialism, positivism, and rational egoism, while rejecting metaphysics, sentimentalism, and aestheticism.
[58] The intellectual origins of the Russian nihilist movement can be traced back to 1855 and perhaps earlier,[59] where it was principally a philosophy of extreme moral and epistemological skepticism.
[60] However, it was not until 1862 that the name nihilism was first popularized, when Ivan Turgenev used the term in his celebrated novel Fathers and Sons to describe the disillusionment of the younger generation towards both the progressives and traditionalists that came before them,[61] as well as its manifestation in the view that negation and value-destruction were most necessary to the present conditions.
[65] As passionate advocates of negation, the nihilists sought to liberate the Promethean might of the Russian people which they saw embodied in a class of prototypal individuals, or new types in their own words.
[71] Karen L. Carr describes Nietzsche's characterization of nihilism as "a condition of tension, as a disproportion between what we want to value (or need) and how the world appears to operate.
"[76] Here he states that the Christian moral doctrine provides people with intrinsic value, belief in God (which justifies the evil in the world) and a basis for objective knowledge.
Schopenhauer's doctrine, which Nietzsche also refers to as Western Buddhism, advocates separating oneself from will and desires in order to reduce suffering.
[73] He states that there is at least the possibility of another type of nihilist in the wake of Christianity's self-dissolution, one that does not stop after the destruction of all value and meaning and succumb to the following nothingness.
For example, in a letter to the rector of Freiburg University of November 4, 1945, Heidegger, inspired by Jünger, tries to explain the notion of "God is dead" as the "reality of the Will to Power."
Derridean deconstructionists argue that this approach rather frees texts, individuals or organizations from a restrictive truth, and that deconstruction opens up the possibility of other ways of being.
It is not limited to the idea that some people fail to find meaning in their lives but makes the broader claim that human existence in general or the world as a whole lacks a higher purpose.
[102] Existential nihilism has diverse practical implications since people usually act with a purpose in mind, sometimes with the explicit goal of making their lives meaningful.
[103] Some philosophers, such as Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), highlight the connection to boredom, arguing that the lack of engagement and goals experienced in this mood makes life appear pointless.
[105] Inspired by Indian philosophy, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) suggested a pessimistic and ascetic response, advocating detachment from the world by renouncing desires and stopping to affirm life.
[108] Other responses include a destructive attitude aiming to violently tear down political authorities and social institutions, attempts to undermine nihilism by identifying genuine sources of meaning, and a passive resignation or quiet acceptance.
They include the discussion of fields where humans actively find meaning, such as exercising freedom, committing oneself to a cause, pursuing altruism, and engaging in positive social relationships.
[115] On a practical level, some moral nihilists, such as Friedrich Nietzsche, conclude from this observation that anything is permitted, suggesting that people are allowed to act however they want without any social restrictions, reflecting a form of anarchism.
[117] Another line of thought emphasizes the evolutionary origin of morality, viewing it as a mere product of natural selection without a deeper metaphysical foundation.
Each of these, as the Encyclopædia Britannica states, "denied the existence of genuine moral truths or values, rejected the possibility of knowledge or communication, and asserted the ultimate meaninglessness or purposelessness of life or of the universe".
[142] Vincent, the main antagonist of the 2004 film Collateral, believes that life has no meaning because that human nature is intrinsically evil, and that deep down, people care only about themselves.
In the 2022 film Everything Everywhere All at Once, the lead antagonist, Jobu Tupaki, comes to an existential nihilistic conclusion that the infinite chaos of the multiverse means that there is no reason to continue to exist.
Her mother Evelyn is briefly persuaded by her logic but then refutes it in favor of a more positive outlook based on the value of human relationships and choice.
[143] In the 2023 video game, Honkai: Star Rail, 'Nihility' is a playable path, presided by the Aeon IX, on which characters who believe that ultimate fate of the multiverse is nothingness, and therefore, worthless, walk on.
