On 14 November 1914, the Ottoman Sultan proclaimed a jihad and sought to create a diversion to draw British troops from the Sinai and Palestine Campaign.

Further west, the inhabitants of areas recently conquered or seized by European powers from the Ottoman Empire, exploited the unsettled conditions caused by the war in Europe to regain control of their lands.

Operations by the British were conducted by small numbers of men equipped with motor vehicles, aircraft and wireless, which multiplied their effectiveness; the speed of their manoeuvres frequently enabled them to surprise their opponents.

The founding of a great German empire was not contemplated, but military weakness in Europe led to an attempt to turn colonial inferiority into an advantage.

The Ottomans entered the war to escape from European domination, rather than as a German proxy and had imperial ambitions in North Africa, Central Asia and the Near East.

The Sheikh urged the peoples of the European colonial empires to join in, a message which reached North, East and West Africa.

Enver ordered the Teskilat-i Mahsusa (Special Organisation) to conduct propaganda, subversion, terrorism and sabotage, based on the precedent of the war in Libya against the Italians.

The French were assisted by Royal Navy code breaking, to anticipate landings from German U-boats and negate the intriguing of the Central Powers.

Fighting was conducted by Sanusi militia under the leadership of Ahmed al-Sharif, whose followers in Fezzan (southwest Libya) and southern Tripolitania prevented Italian consolidation their hold on these regions.

Spanish authorities in the region informally tolerated the distribution of propaganda and money but a German plot to smuggle 5,000 rifles and 500,000 bullets through Spain was thwarted.

The Zaians, led by Mouha ou Hammou Zayani quickly lost the towns of Taza and Khénifra but managed to inflict many casualties on the French, who responded by establishing groupes mobiles, combined arms formations of regular and irregular infantry, cavalry and artillery.

An offensive led to attacks on Sollum, Mersa Matruh and Da'aba on the way to Alexandria and from Siwa through the band of oases of Bahariya, Farafra, Dakhla and Kharga 100 mi (160 km) west of the Nile.

The U-boat surfaced, sank the coastguard gunboat Abbas and badly damaged Nur el Bahr with its deck gun.

The British withdrew from Sollum to Mersa Matruh, 120 mi (190 km) further east, which had better facilities for a base and the Western Frontier Force was created.

[14] The reconnaissance continued and on 13 December at Wadi Hasheifiat, the British were attacked again and held up until artillery came into action in the afternoon and forced the Senussi to retreat.

Siwa was entered on 4 February, unopposed but a British ambush party at the Munassib Pass was foiled, when the escarpment was found to be too steep for the armoured cars.

[21] The Sirdar (commander) of the Egyptian Army, organised a force of c. 2,000 men at Rahad, a railhead 200 mi (320 km) east of the Darfur frontier.

On 16 March, the force crossed the frontier in lorries from a forward base established at Nahud, 90 mi (140 km) from the border, with the support of four aircraft.

Dinar withdrew into the Marra Mountains 50 mi (80 km) south of El Fasher and sent envoys to discuss terms but the British believed he was prevaricating and ended the talks on 1 August.

Internal dissension reduced the force with Dinar to c. 1,000 men; Anglo-Egyptian outposts were pushed out from El Fasher, to the west and south-west after the August rains.

At dawn on 6 November, a combined Anglo-Egyptian forced attacked in the Affair of Gyuba and Dinar's remaining followers scattered and the body of the Sultan was found 1 mi (1.6 km) from the camp.