Oath of allegiance

However, typically in a constitutional monarchy, such as in the United Kingdom, Australia, and other Commonwealth realms, oaths are sworn to the monarch.

Clergy in the Church of England are required to take an Oath of Supremacy acknowledging the authority of the British monarch.

There have been moves in some of the realms to make the oath of citizenship sworn by new citizens refer to the country rather than the monarch.

All of these moves have not succeeded as the King or Queen is the personification of the Canadian, British, or Australian state (or that of any other Commonwealth realm).

The European Court of Human Rights ruled in 1999 that the oath of allegiance to a reigning monarch is "reasonably viewed as an affirmation of loyalty to the constitutional principles supporting the workings of representative democracy.