Oesophagostomum, especially O. bifurcum, are common parasites of livestock and animals like goats, pigs and non-human primates, although it seems that humans are increasingly becoming favorable hosts as well.

was reported in 1905 by Railliet and Henry, describing parasites found in the tumors of the caecum and colon of a male hailing from the Omo River in Southern Ethiopia.

[3] There is no overarching clinical picture for symptoms of oesophagostomiasis; however, most patients experience pain in the lower right quadrant, accompanied by the presence of one or several protruding abdominal masses.

In rare cases, serious disease can occur including emaciation, fluid in the pericardium, cardiomegaly, hepatosplenomegaly, perisplenitis and enlargement of the appendix.

[8] The following is a summary of the second recorded case of oesophagostomiasis, as reported by H. Wolferstan Thomas in 1910: Patient: male, 36 years old, native of the Rio Purus region in the Amazon State Chief complaints: suffering from acute dysentery, later experiencing deliriousness Outcome: Died within the three days following his admission.

In the interior of the small intestine, twenty nodules were found along the walls, causing a discernible bulging of the mucous membrane.

Interior of the caecum was filled with rope-like opaque masses of rows of cystic tumors, which caused great thicking of the walls.

It is possible that there are behavioral factors or unique soil conditions that facilitate larval development and are not found outside the current endemic areas.

[14] A definitive diagnosis of Oesophagostomum infection is traditionally done by demonstrating the presence of the larval or young adult forms in nodules of the intestinal wall via surgical examination of tissue.

[9] With microscopy, one can identify the larvae based on the presence of somatic musculature divided into four quarters, along with a multinucleated intestine as well as an immature reproductive system.

Verweij, Jaco J., Anton M. Polderman, et al. “PCR assay for the specific amplification of Oesophagostomum bifurcum DNA from human faeces.” International Journal for Parasitology 30.2 (2000): 137-142.

The ability to diagnose oesophagostomiasis via ultrasound can reduce the number of excessive invasive surgeries and put greater emphasis on chemotherapy.

[16] Verweij, Jaco J, Eric A T Brienen, et al. “Simultaneous detection and quantification of Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus and Oesophagostomum bifurcum in fecal samples using multiplex real-time PCR.

Hygiene 77 (4) 685-690 A multiplex PCR method was developed for simultaneously detection of A. dudodenale, N. americanus and O. bifurcum in human fecal samples.

Furthermore, cycle threshold values, which correspond to parasite-specific DNA load, correlated with measured intensity of infection as demonstrated in Kato-Kato smears.

[8] Excision of Oesophagostomum larvae from nodules has been shown to have a curative effect on the patient but is invasive and more resource intensive than chemotherapy.

[9] In the case of formation of abscesses or fistulae arising from Dapaong tumors, incision and drainage is performed, followed by a regimen of albendazole and antibiotic treatment.

A few sporadic cases have been reported in countries in South America and Southeast Asia, including Brazil, Indonesia and Malaysia.

[7] O. bifurcum infection in northern Togo and Ghana is found in virtually every village, with some rural areas exhibiting as much as 90% prevalence.

These age demographic and gender discrepancies are not yet sufficiently explained – possible factors include differential exposure to contaminated water and strength of immune response.

[10] A study done by Krepel in 1992 revealed a correlation between infection with O. bifurcum and N. americanus in that individuals living in endemic villages were either coinfected with both parasites or neither.

[13] This could be due to cofactors shared by both parasites, including poor hygiene, certain agricultural practices and the dearth of potable water suitable for consumption.

Based on these epidemiological studies, this group was able to conclude that tribe, profession, or religion had no effect on the prevalence of infection in the different communities surveyed.

13% of the patients presented with the multinodular form of the disease in which they had several nodules in their small intestine, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss.

[9] Since oesophagostomiasis is primarily a regional problem (localized in northern Ghana and Togo, an optimal approach to addressing it requires mobilization of resources within and around the endemic area.

One proposed solution is to organize all research and intervention projects at the local level, so as to instill knowledge of the infection in the community, and establish a regional collaboration between Ghana, Togo, and Burkina Faso in order to effectively combat oesophagostomiasis.

B. Ziem's study of a mass treatment campaign in northern Ghana, as well as the follow-up conducted with the Lymphatic Filariasis Elimination Program.

Ziem, Juventus B et al. “Impact of repeated mass treatment on human Oesophagostomum and hookworm infections in northern Ghana.” Tropical Medicine & International Health: TM & IH 11.11 (2006): 1764–72.

B. et al. “Annual mass treatment with albendazole might eliminate human oesophagostomiasis from the endemic focus in northern Ghana.” Tropical Medicine & International Health: TM & IH 11.11 (2006): 1759–63.

Human oesophagostomiasis infection thus seems interruptible; even small numbers of persistent Oesophagostomum post-treatment were not sufficient to cause reinfection.