[4] Though Okinawan encompasses a number of local dialects,[5] the Shuri–Naha variant is generally recognized as the de facto standard,[6] as it had been used as the official language of the Ryukyu Kingdom[7] since the reign of King Shō Shin (1477–1526).

After Ryukyu became a vassal of Satsuma Domain, kanji gained more prominence in poetry; however, official Ryukyuan documents were written in Classical Chinese.

Within 10 years, the Japanese government began an assimilation policy of Japanization, where Ryukyuan languages were gradually suppressed.

[11] In 1902, the National Language Research Council (国語調査委員会) began the linguistic unification of Japan to Standard Japanese.

[citation needed] Under American administration, there was an attempt to revive and standardize Okinawan, but this proved difficult and was shelved in favor of Japanese.

Once in a new country and far from their homeland, they found themselves in a place where there was no prohibition of their language, allowing them to willingly speak, celebrate and preserve their speech and culture, up to the present day.

Currently the Okinawan-Japanese centers and communities in the State of São Paulo are a world reference to this language helping it to stay alive.

[16] Okinawan linguist Seizen Nakasone states that the Ryukyuan languages are in fact groupings of similar dialects.

Nakasone attributes this diversity to the isolation caused by immobility, citing the story of his mother who wanted to visit the town of Nago but never made the 25 km trip before she died of old age.

The Okinawan language counts some 20 distinctive segments shown in the chart below, with major allophones presented in parentheses.

The consonant system of the Okinawan language is fairly similar to that of standard Japanese, but it does present a few differences on the phonemic and allophonic level.

However, this analysis fails to take account of the fact that Okinawan has not fully undergone the diachronic change */p/ → /ɸ/ → */h/ as in Japanese, and that the suggested clusterization and labialization into */hw/ is unmotivated.

The plosive consonants /t/ and /k/ historically palatalized and affricated into /t͡ɕ/ before and occasionally following the glide /j/ and the high vowel /i/: */kiri/ → /t͡ɕiɾi/ chiri "fog", and */k(i)jora/ → /t͡ɕuɾa/ chura- "beautiful".

Similarly, the fricative consonant /s/ palatalizes into [ɕ] before the glide /j/ and the vowel /i/, including when /i/ historically derives from /e/: */sekai/ → [ɕikeː] shikē "world".

High vowel loss or assimilation following this process created a contrast with glottalized approximants and nasal consonants.

Like Japanese, /N/ (transcribed using the small capital /ɴ/) occupies a full mora and its precise place of articulation will vary depending on the following consonant.

The hiragana syllabary is believed to have first been introduced from mainland Japan to the Ryukyu Kingdom some time during the reign of king Shunten in the early thirteenth century.

[29][30] It is likely that Okinawans were already in contact with hanzi (Chinese characters) due to extensive trade between the Ryukyu Kingdom and China, Japan and Korea.

The Omoro Sōshi (おもろさうし), a sixteenth-century compilation of songs and poetry,[31] and a few preserved writs of appointments dating from the same century were written solely in Hiragana.

[32] Kanji were gradually adopted due to the growing influence of mainland Japan and to the linguistic affinity between the Okinawan and Japanese languages.

The oldest inscription of Okinawan exemplifying its use along with Hiragana can be found on a stone stele at the Tamaudun mausoleum, dating back to 1501.

Following the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government abolished the domain system and formally annexed the Ryukyu Islands to Japan as the Okinawa Prefecture in 1879.

[36] To promote national unity, the government then introduced standard education and opened Japanese-language schools based on the Tokyo dialect.

In any case, no standard or consensus concerning spelling issues has ever been formalized, so discrepancies between modern literary works are common.

Okinawan retains a number of Japonic grammatical features also found in Old Japanese but lost (or highly restricted) in Modern Japanese, such as a distinction between the terminal form (終止形) and the attributive form (連体形), the genitive function of が ga (lost in the Shuri dialect), the nominative function of ぬ nu (cf.

Classical Japanese: 書く kaku One etymology given for the -un and -uru endings is the continuative form suffixed with uri ("to be; to exist", cf.

Classical Japanese: 居り wori): -un developed from the terminal form uri; -uru developed from the attributive form uru, i.e.: A similar etymology is given for the terminal -san and attributive -saru endings for adjectives: the stem suffixed with さ sa (nominalises adjectives, i.e. high → height, hot → heat), suffixed with ari ("to be; to exist; to have", cf.

あぬAnu夫婦fitundāひっちー、hitchī,たっくゎいむっくゎいtakkwaimukkwaiびけーそーん。bikēsōn.あぬ 夫婦 ひっちー、 たっくゎいむっくゎい びけーそーん。Anu fitundā hitchī, takkwaimukkwai bikēsōn.あのAno夫婦fūfuはwaいつも、itsumo,寄り添ってyorisotteばかりbakariいる。iru.あの 夫婦 は いつも、 寄り添って ばかり いる。Ano fūfu wa itsumo, yorisotte bakari iru.That couple is always sticking close.子ーKwāまーるけーてぃ、mārukēti,親uyaぬnu加勢しーがkashīshīga行ちゅん。ichun.子ー まーるけーてぃ、 親 ぬ 加勢しーが 行ちゅん。Kwā mārukēti, uya nu kashīshīga ichun.子供Kodomoはwaたまに、tamani,親oyaのno手伝いtetsudaiにni行く。iku.子供 は たまに、 親 の 手伝い に 行く。Kodomo wa tamani, oya no tetsudai ni iku.The kid occasionally goes to help his/her parent.くぬKunu車ーkurumāちゃーき、chāki,けーやんでぃとーんたん。kēyanditōntan.くぬ 車ー ちゃーき、 けーやんでぃとーんたん。Kunu kurumā chāki, kēyanditōntan.このKono車kurumaはwa直ぐ、sugu,壊れてkowareteしまっていた。shimatteita.この 車 は 直ぐ、 壊れて しまっていた。Kono kuruma wa sugu, kowarete shimatteita.This car broke already.やがてぃ、Yagati,太陽tidaぬnu落てぃゆしが、utiyushiga,御所ーunjuō来ーん。kūn.やがてぃ、 太陽 ぬ 落てぃゆしが、 御所ー 来ーん。Yagati, tida nu utiyushiga, unjuō kūn.やがて、Yagate,太陽taiyōがga落ちるが、ochiruga,あなたanataはwaこない。konai.やがて、 太陽 が 落ちるが、 あなた は こない。Yagate, taiyō ga ochiruga, anata wa konai.The sun will disappear shortly, but you are not here.彼女がAriga胆chimō未だ、nāda,直らん。nōran.彼女が 胆 未だ、 直らん。Ariga chimō nāda, nōran.彼女Kanojoのno機嫌kigenはwaまだ、mada,直らない。naoranai.彼女 の 機嫌 は まだ、 直らない。Kanojo no kigen wa mada, naoranai.Her mood has yet to become better.あまAmaぬnu犬inōちゃー、chā,あびとーん。abitōn.あま ぬ 犬 ちゃー、 あびとーん。Ama nu inō chā, abitōn.あそこAsokoのno犬inuはwaいつも、itsumo,吠えている。hoeteiru.あそこ の 犬 は いつも、 吠えている。Asoko no inu wa itsumo, hoeteiru.The dog over there is always barking.ちゅてーや、Chutēya,待っちょーきよー。matchōkiyō.ちゅてーや、 待っちょーきよー。Chutēya, matchōkiyō.少しは、Sukoshiwa,待っておいてよ。matteoiteyo.少しは、 待っておいてよ。Sukoshiwa, matteoiteyo.Wait a little.どぅしDushiぬnuあっとぅむす、attumusu,はっ来ょーたんどー。hachōtandō.どぅし ぬ あっとぅむす、 はっ来ょーたんどー。Dushi nu attumusu, hachōtandō.友達Tomodachiがga急に、kyūni,来ていたよ。kiteitayo.友達 が 急に、 来ていたよ。Tomodachi ga kyūni, kiteitayo.My friend suddenly came.隣Tunaiぬnu三郎主Sandāsūやyaまるひーじーやmaruhījīya寝んてぃどぅ居ゆる。nintidūyuru.隣 ぬ 三郎主 や まるひーじーや 寝んてぃどぅ居ゆる。Tunai nu Sandāsū ya maruhījīya nintidūyuru.隣Tonariのno三郎爺はSandā-jī普段はfudanwa寝ている。neteiru.隣 の 三郎爺は 普段は 寝ている。Tonari no Sandā-jī fudanwa neteiru.Sanda is normally sleeping.いっとぅちゃー、Ittuchā,門口jōguchiんじnji待っちょーけー。matchōkē.いっとぅちゃー、 門口 んじ 待っちょーけー。Ittuchā, jōguchi nji matchōkē.しばらくは、Shibarakuwa,門monでde待っておけ。matteoke.しばらくは、 門 で 待っておけ。Shibarakuwa, mon de matteoke.Wait at the gate a little while.三郎、Sandā,いふぇー、ifē,汝yāたましtamashiからkara分きてぃ取らせー。wakititurasē.三郎、 いふぇー、 汝 たまし から 分きてぃ取らせー。Sandā, ifē, yā tamashi kara wakititurasē.三郎、Sandā,少しsukoshiはwa君kimiのno分bunからkara分けてくれ。waketekure.三郎、 少し は 君 の 分 から 分けてくれ。Sandā, sukoshi wa kimi no bun kara waketekure.Sanda, please share a little bit of yours.御主前Usumēやya山yamaからkaraちゃっさきー、chassakī,薪、tamun,持ち来ぇーん。muchichēn.御主前 や 山 から ちゃっさきー、 薪、 持ち来ぇーん。Usumē ya yama kara chassakī, tamun, muchichēn.お爺さんOjī-sanはwa山yamaからkara沢山、takusan,薪makiをwo持ってきてある。mottekitearu.お爺さん は 山 から 沢山、 薪 を 持ってきてある。Ojī-san wa yama kara takusan, maki wo mottekitearu.The old man brought a lot of firewood.昨日Chinūやyaはてぃるか、hatiruka,歩っちゃん。atchan.昨日 や はてぃるか、 歩っちゃん。Chinū ya hatiruka, atchan.昨日Kinōはwa随分、zuibun,歩いた。aruita.昨日 は 随分、 歩いた。Kinō wa zuibun, aruita.I walked a lot yesterday.我達Wattā畑haruんかいnkaiやya黍ūjēぐゎさない、gwasanai,まんどーんどー。mandōndō.我達 畑 んかい や 黍 ぐゎさない、 まんどーんどー。Wattā haru nkai ya ūjē gwasanai, mandōndō.私達Watashitachiのno畑hatakeにniはwa砂糖黍satōkibiはwaわんさかwansakaあるよ。aruyo.私達 の 畑 に は 砂糖黍 は わんさか あるよ。Watashitachi no hatake ni wa satōkibi wa wansaka aruyo.We have abundant sugar cane in our farm.芋Nmuやれー、yarē,しんめーんshinmēn鍋nābiんかいnkai満っちゃきーmitchakī（満っちゃかー）、(mitchakā),あんどー。andō.芋 やれー、 しんめーん 鍋 んかい 満っちゃきー （満っちゃかー）、 あんどー。Nmu yarē, shinmēn nābi nkai mitchakī (mitchakā), andō.芋Imoならnara大鍋ōnabeに、ni,一杯、ippai,あるよ。aruyo.芋 なら 大鍋 に、 一杯、 あるよ。Imo nara ōnabe ni, ippai, aruyo.We have a lot of potatoes in the big pot.糸満Ikumanんかいnkaiやya清ら顔churakāgiぬnuゆっかりうっさ、yukkariussa,居ゆuyuんでぃ。ndi.糸満 んかい や 清ら顔 ぬ ゆっかりうっさ、 居ゆ んでぃ。Ikuman nkai ya churakāgi nu yukkariussa, uyu ndi.糸満Itomanにniはwa美人bijinがga随分、zuibun,いるiruそうだ。sōda.糸満 に は 美人 が 随分、 いる そうだ。Itoman ni wa bijin ga zuibun, iru sōda.I heard that there are a lot of beautiful women in Itoman.がじゃん坂Gajanbiraんかいnkaiやyaうすまさ、usumasa,がじゃんgajanぬnu居ゆたuyutaんでぃ。ndi.がじゃん坂 んかい や うすまさ、 がじゃん ぬ 居ゆた んでぃ。Gajanbira nkai ya usumasa, gajan nu uyuta ndi.ガジャンビラGajanbiraにniはwa恐ろしく、osoroshiku,蚊kaがgaいたitaそうだ。sōda.ガジャンビラ に は 恐ろしく、 蚊 が いた そうだ。Gajanbira ni wa osoroshiku, ka ga ita sōda.I heard that there were a lot of mosquitoes in Gajanbira.水ーMijīまんたきー、mantakī,入りてぃ、iriti,たじらしよー。dajirashiyō.水ー まんたきー、 入りてぃ、 たじらしよー。Mijī mantakī, iriti, dajirashiyō.水Mizuはwa一杯、ippai,入れて、irete,焚いてね。taitene.水 は 一杯、 入れて、 焚いてね。Mizu wa ippai, irete, taitene.Put full of water and heat it.くぬKunu湯yuんかいnkai水、mijē,なーふぃん、nāfin,んべーてぃ呉れー。nbētikwirē.くぬ 湯 んかい 水、 なーふぃん、 んべーてぃ呉れー。Kunu yu nkai mijē, nāfin, nbētikwirē.このKonoお湯oyuにni水mizuをwoもっと、motto,足してくれ。tashitekure.この お湯 に 水 を もっと、 足してくれ。Kono oyu ni mizu wo motto, tashitekure.Add more water to this hot water.今日Chiyūぬnu持飯muchibanめーやmēya軽ってんぐゎ、kattengwa,容りてぃ取らせー。irititurasē.今日 ぬ 持飯 めーや 軽ってんぐゎ、 容りてぃ取らせー。Chiyū nu muchiban mēya kattengwa, irititurasē.今日Kyōのno弁当bentōはwa少しだけ、sukoshidake,入れてちょうだい。iretechōdai.今日 の 弁当 は 少しだけ、 入れてちょうだい。Kyō no bentō wa sukoshidake, iretechōdai.Please give me just a little for today's bento box.御所Unjuがga三線sanshinぬnu皮kāやyaでーじな、dējina,上等jōtōやんやー。yan'yā御所 が 三線 ぬ 皮 や でーじな、 上等 やんやー。Unju ga sanshin nu kā ya dējina, jōtō yan'yāあなたAnataのno三味線shamisenのno皮kawaはwa大変、taihen,上等jōtōですね。desune.あなた の 三味線 の 皮 は 大変、 上等 ですね。Anata no shamisen no kawa wa taihen, jōtō desune.The leather of your shamisen is expensive.我んねーWannē若さいにwakasainīーやyaじまま、jimama,勉強binchōしゃん。shan.我んねー 若さいに ーや じまま、 勉強 しゃん。Wannē wakasainī ya jimama, binchō shan.私Watashiはwa若い頃wakaikoroは、wa,随分、zuibun,勉強benkyōした。shita.私 は 若い頃 は、 随分、 勉強 した。Watashi wa wakaikoro wa, zuibun, benkyō shita.When I was young, I used to study quite a lot.今度Kunduぬnu正月shōgwachiえeよねー、yonē,ゆくららんさー。yukuraransā.今度 ぬ 正月 え よねー、 ゆくららんさー。Kundu nu shōgwachi e yonē, yukuraransā.今度Kondoのno正月shōgatsuは、wa,そんなには、sonnaniwa,休めないな。yasumenaina.今度 の 正月 は、 そんなには、 休めないな。Kondo no shōgatsu wa, sonnaniwa, yasumenaina.I cannot rest too much during this New Year's celebration.Kunu umi nji e īruku, uijundō.

むし、Mushi,言いばっぺえしいねえ、ībappēshīnē,如何ichaすか。suka.むし、 言いばっぺえしいねえ、 如何 すか。Mushi, ībappēshīnē, icha suka.もし、Moshi,言い間違えたら、iimachigaetara,どうdōするか。suruka.もし、 言い間違えたら、 どう するか。Moshi, iimachigaetara, dō suruka.What would we do if we said something wrong.たとぅい、Tatui,大風ufukajiぬnu吹ちん、fuchin,くぬkunu家yāやya倒おりらん。tōoriran.たとぅい、 大風 ぬ 吹ちん、 くぬ 家 や 倒おりらん。Tatui, ufukaji nu fuchin, kunu yā ya tōoriran.例え、Tatoe,大風ōkazeがga吹いても、fuitemo,このkono家ieはwa倒れない。taorenai.例え、 大風 が 吹いても、 この 家 は 倒れない。Tatoe, ōkaze ga fuitemo, kono ie wa taorenai.Even if a strong wind blew, this house will not fall down.例れー、Taturē,沖縄Uchināやya大和YamatuぬnuハワイHawaiやさ。yasa.例れー、 沖縄 や 大和 ぬ ハワイ やさ。Taturē, Uchinā ya Yamatu nu Hawai yasa.例えばTatoteba沖縄Okinawaはwa日本NihonのnoハワイHawaiさ。sa.例えば 沖縄 は 日本 の ハワイ さ。Tatoteba Okinawa wa Nihon no Hawai sa.If you compare, Okinawa is like Japan's Hawaii.いやりん、Iyarin,くぬkunu鳥sūsāやya山原yanbaruくぇーなkwēnaどぅduやさに。yasani.いやりん、 くぬ 鳥 や 山原 くぇーな どぅ やさに。Iyarin, kunu sūsā ya yanbaru kwēna du yasani.きっとKitto（いかにも）、(ikanimo),このkono鳥toriはwa山原yanbaruクイナkuinaなのnanoだろうか。darōka.きっと （いかにも）、 この 鳥 は 山原 クイナ なの だろうか。Kitto (ikanimo), kono tori wa yanbaru kuina nano darōka.Surely this bird must be an Okinawa rail.まさか、Masaka,ちゅchu村shimaんかいnkai従弟ichikuぬnuしまゆshimayuんでー、ndē,思んたん。umāntan.まさか、 ちゅ 村 んかい 従弟 ぬ しまゆ んでー、 思んたん。Masaka, chu shima nkai ichiku nu shimayu ndē, umāntan.まさか、Masaka,同じonaji村muraにni従弟itokoがga住んでいるsundeiruとはtowa思わなかった。omowanakatta.まさか、 同じ 村 に 従弟 が 住んでいる とは 思わなかった。Masaka, onaji mura ni itoko ga sundeiru towa omowanakatta.I had no idea that my cousin lived in the same village.Masaka chūya umachī ndē umāntan

Okinawan is a marked nominative language (with the accusative being unmarked) that also shows minor active–stative variation in intransitive verbs relating to existence or emergence.